The fact that the colonial period attracted African-Americans in large numbers in the area made it possible for the hip-hop culture to be presently one of the most important elements in the Bahamas. "Not only does hip-hop provide the literal soundtrack for many of the entrances -- with hip-hop music being boomed from car sound systems -- but its visual cultural expressions are especially pronounced, as prom-goers emulate the displays of materialism and conspicuous consumption found in some late twentieth-century expressions of the genre" (Thompson 2011)
" (Karpat 1982, 23) An assessment of state formation 'must attend to the precise matrix from which [it] was launched' (Bromley 1994, 45) (yet it is evident that the British failed to appreciate this. The Western, Weberian, conception of a state, in which the territoriality and legitimacy of the system are paramount (Anderson 1987, 2) was fundamentally incompatible to the nature of Middle Eastern societies, which had previously comprised of a tributary empire, nomads and a tribal state (Bromley 1994, 34)
Iraq emerged as a result of the peace settlement and was arbitrarily formed of three former Ottoman provinces; Mosul, Basra and Baghdad. Although Egypt had been occupied, supposedly temporarily, by the British since 1882, it became the 'cornerstone of British colonial supremacy' (Ayubi 1995, 88)
Therefore; 'In Iraq there is still…no Iraqi people, but unimaginable masses of human beings, devoid of any patriotic ideal, imbued with religious traditions and absurdities, connected to no common tie, giving ear to evil, prone to anarchy, and perpetually ready to rise against any government whatsoever.' (Faisal 1933, Quoted in Yapp 1991, 70) In addition to the inevitable conflict between the social groups, Iraq was also subject to great friction between the urban and rural communities, described as 'two almost separate worlds' (Batutu 1993, 503)
All it wishes is to live freely and independently, that each nation shall make its own destiny, exploit the riches of her soil for the benefit of her own children, and respect the independence of other nations be they eastern or western." (Karpat 1982, 23) An assessment of state formation 'must attend to the precise matrix from which [it] was launched' (Bromley 1994, 45) (yet it is evident that the British failed to appreciate this
Britain and France collaborated in mid-October 1956 to enjoin a joint interposition in Egypt, aware that the Israeli's had plans to invade Egypt as well. Aware of the upcoming Israeli plan to invade the Sinai, French officials suggested that a Franco-British force could enter Egypt ostensibly to separate the combatants, while actually assuming command of the whole Suez waterway (Carlton 1989)
Although Egypt had been occupied, supposedly temporarily, by the British since 1882, it became the 'cornerstone of British colonial supremacy' (Ayubi 1995, 88). In order to 'secure its essential strategic needs without incurring the expenses of directly governing the territories' (Cleveland 2004, 193), Britain installed a pliable monarch in both states
The formation of Nation States has led to often artificial state-centric politics where previously the nation executed a more important role. Indeed Bromley suggest that it is the state which is the barrier to democracy in the Middle East and not Islam as is popularly concluded (Deegan 1993)
The intrinsic conflict that rendered this process problematic can be summarized by Cromer, who states that the colonizers were; 'striving to attain two ideals, which are apt to be mutually destructive -- the ideal of good government, which connotes the continuance of his [English] supremacy, and the ideal of self-government, which connotes the whole or partial abdication of his supreme position.' (Wilson 1931, 72) While purporting to be installing a system politically superior to its predecessor, the British fail to cultivate any notion of political freedom, rights of the individual or mass representation that are traditionally linked with Western liberal democracy (Haj 1997, 81)
Yet the system of territorial states has proven extremely resilient. One lasting and significant effect of Western imperialism in Egypt and Iraq is the ideological legacy left behind and the 'determinant role' (Halliday 2005, 83) played by nationalism
All it wishes is to live freely and independently, that each nation shall make its own destiny, exploit the riches of her soil for the benefit of her own children, and respect the independence of other nations be they eastern or western." (Karpat 1982, 23) An assessment of state formation 'must attend to the precise matrix from which [it] was launched' (Bromley 1994, 45) (yet it is evident that the British failed to appreciate this
Nasser's goal was the restoration of the Arab nation under Egyptian leadership and an end to foreign influence in the area. The nationalization of Suez was the first time that a Third World country had successfully regained one of its major foreign-owned assets (Carlton 1989) (McIntyre 1998)
The fickleness of the British position is exemplified by their later coercion of King Farouk (1936-52) to appoint an enfeebled Wafd government due to their need for a neutral Egypt during the Second World War. This intense irony does not detract from the fact that the monarchs in Egypt and Iraq were very powerful political actors but were 'so closely associated with the structures of colonialization that they did not outlast them' (Owen 1992, 19)
Substantiation of this can be seen in the proto-nationalist revolts of 1919 and 1920 in Egypt and Iraq respectively. Opposition parties were united in the demands for total independence and, as 'ideologies arise in conditions of crisis' (Salem
They tried to build up the productivity of their colonies, and this resulted in the colonized people challenging imperial rule. Springhall argues that, 'rapid urbanization plus social and political mobilization were behind the ideology of anti-colonial nationalism' (Springhall 2001, 8)
Similarly, the first Iraqi elections results conferred power to tribal shaykhs, aghast and old notables (Haj 1997, 82), almost exclusively Sunni Arabs, which set a precedent for all preceding elections, where members of the assembly were chosen bi-il-tazkiya (unopposed). This contributes to the volatility of the regime due to the minority position, in sectarian terms, of those in power (Tripp 2002, 31)
Similarly, the first Iraqi elections results conferred power to tribal shaykhs, aghast and old notables (Haj 1997, 82), almost exclusively Sunni Arabs, which set a precedent for all preceding elections, where members of the assembly were chosen bi-il-tazkiya (unopposed). This contributes to the volatility of the regime due to the minority position, in sectarian terms, of those in power (Tripp 2002, 31)
The intrinsic conflict that rendered this process problematic can be summarized by Cromer, who states that the colonizers were; 'striving to attain two ideals, which are apt to be mutually destructive -- the ideal of good government, which connotes the continuance of his [English] supremacy, and the ideal of self-government, which connotes the whole or partial abdication of his supreme position.' (Wilson 1931, 72) While purporting to be installing a system politically superior to its predecessor, the British fail to cultivate any notion of political freedom, rights of the individual or mass representation that are traditionally linked with Western liberal democracy (Haj 1997, 81)
For example, the role of the military in overthrowing successive governments is a feature that appears repeatedly in both Egypt and Iraq. The 'compulsory model' (Zubaida 1993, 121) of the nation-state assumes that the cultures of Egypt and Iraq are essentially the same as those in Western Europe, which hinders the possibilities of their own political evolution
In the end, the existing avenues of management were directed at wars and other battles that resulted in crimes against humanity as is being experienced today. Congo is one of the nations that have not settled political since the creation of the free Africa, which marked the departure of the colonizers (Granata & Koos 2008, p