20-31) the foundations for Roman conquest and protector-ship began insidiously through Roman building and organization of space and public works. In Becoming Roman the urbanization and identity building of the Guals is discussed at great length (Woolf, 2003, pp
Al of the above examples began as Roman colonies, along Roman roads, in a relatively straight line, and then developed into urban centers as the needs of the mother city and others grew to meet dense populations and public infrastructure. (Zanker, 2000, pp
3). A recent article in the Harvard Political Review (Huang, 2011) suggests that autocratic regimes like China are "more easily threatened" by huge masses of people in cities
R. Kirkby's book, Urbanization in China, the author explains that the most "common sense explanation" for China's "supposed anti-urbanism" in the post-1949 era "lies in the means to state power taken by the Chinese Communist Party" (Kirkby, 1985, p
China and Urbanization What are the three main reasons urbanization was limited between 1949 and 1980 in China? First, according to professor Kenneth a. Small of University of California at Irving, "During the Mao era, urbanization was often suppressed"; also, Small writes that in that era developing in the eastern coastal cities was discouraged for "military reasons" (Small, 2002, p
3 billion people. "Uncontrolled urbanization causes many farmers to flock to cities in a short period of time," Wen explains (Wen, 2007)
However, simple matters of height are not the only variable of the ABL that concerns engineers, because differences in terrain can substantially effect both wind speed and turbulence. For example, air speed is effected differently depending on surface roughness, such that the transition from smooth to rough or rough to smooth can dramatically alter wind speed (Azad 1993)
The sheer range of the ABL's height should give some indication as to the importance of including the ABL in one's calculations, particularly because every high-rise design will be effected differently due to topographical and environmental differences depending on the proposed location. There are multiple layers within the ABL, and although there is some ongoing discussion regarding the precise number and makeup of these layers, there is general agreement on the two major regions of the ABL, referred to as the Ekman layer, after Vagn Walfrid Ekman, the Swedish oceanographer who first theorized its existence, and the inner layer (Garratt 1992)
CFD may be performed via different simulations and models depending on the proposed design, and by using the Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes Equation (RANS) model one can easily simulate the effects of wind on high-rises with different cross-sections using widely available software such as CFX. The benefits of this approach are many, but the most obvious is the fact that the RANS model can produce results quickly and has been shown to "yield encouraging results in most cases" when compared to both wind-tunnel tests and Large Eddy Simulations (LES) (Huang, Li, & Xu 2007, p
190). Other experiments have shown that a tapered building model reduces wind excitations, although a discrepancy appears between suburban and urban flow settings (Kim & You 2002, p
The simplest method available for modeling flow are simple linear models, which have the benefit of simplicity and speed but which are ultimately insufficient for the kind of modeling needed to determine the ideal high-rise cross-sections. In contrast, direct numerical simulation, in which a computer simulates the Navier-Stokes equations "for a full range of turbulent motions for all scales," offers stunning accuracy and completeness, such that "when properly carried out, DNS results would be comparable in every way to quality experimental data" (Stangroom 2004, p
The ABL can vary in height depending on certain environmental conditions, and it is effected by a number of variables including surface temperature variability, topographical features, and surface friction. In fact, the height of the ABL can vary from under one hundred meters to as high as multiple kilometers, depending on the aforementioned variables (Stull 1988)
Because different building cross-sections effect wind load differently, predicting, measuring, and accounting for these differences is crucial for the construction of safe high-rises. Wind-tunnel testing has shown that square buildings with modified corners and helical buildings both perform better than buildings with a square cross section or helical buildings with modified corners (Tanaka et
1781). Finally, wind-tunnel research into triangular cross-sections has shown that they also reduce wind excitations (Yoshida et
These difficulties are said to be derived from two main reasons. They are the "historically rooted and enduring structure of social inequality, and the persistent failure to foresee, accept and plan for massive urban growth" (Martine & McGranahan, 2010)
It also means that urban areas are developed more and more and people migrate from rural areas to the metropolitan cities. This also customarily leads to the vanishing of rural areas as hubs are being expanded further and further outwards until they take place of the previous rural areas (Plessis, 2011)
It also means that urban areas are developed more and more and people migrate from rural areas to the metropolitan cities. This also customarily leads to the vanishing of rural areas as hubs are being expanded further and further outwards until they take place of the previous rural areas (Plessis, 2011)
However, unlike most developing countries, the population density of Brazil varies greatly as it has got many areas where population is very low. Majority of Brazilians either live in or around the large cities and it has been in recent years that some low population density areas have been opened up for the purpose of settlement (Yoder & Fuguitt, Summer 1979)
Africa in general has long been revered for its rich mineral resources, fertile areas, and abundance of what was appropriated as human labor. This sentiment certainly applies to South Africa, which was long desired by Europeans for its "gold mines" (Cox et al
Urbanization and Foreign Aid Africa has long been the site of urbanization and foreign aid since the so-called Scramble for Africa (Hopkins, 1993, p