There is also some indication that the older participants suffer from more severe PTSD because the alcohol/PTSD was older than the cocaine/PTSD group. Review Study 3 final study entitled Victimization and PTSD in Individuals with Substance Use Disorders: Gender and Racial Differences" seeks to report the gender and racial differences between Victimization and PTSD in Individuals with Substance Use Disorders (Dansky et al
This emphasizes the need to implement policies and strategies that target not only the physical needs, but also the emotional and mental needs of these children. In addition to generally traumatic events, some children face extremely high levels of victimization in the form of maltreatment, abuse, and injury (Berkowitz, Stover, and Marans, 2011)
When this happens to children and adolescents, several factors affect the developing or prevention of PTSD. When the new country is found to be nurturing and supportive, for example, PTSD is less likely to develop than when this is not the case (Fazel et al
As such, PTSD has also been found to be a marker for stress vulnerability (Raphael and Widom, 2010). Another physical consequence of childhood victimization that caused PTSD is elevated rates of the chronic diseases of aging and higher rates of morbidity and mortality of these (Miller, Chen, and Parker, 2011)
Indeed, the combination of PTSD and childhood victimization by means of abuse or neglect is statistically linked to most types of pain complaints in adulthood. As such, PTSD has also been found to be a marker for stress vulnerability (Raphael and Widom, 2010)
There are also several health consequences associated with the condition. These include a tendency towards suicide, substance abuse, impaired functioning and general health problems (Roberts et al
5 million children were orphaned in Sub-Saharan Africa during 2007, with even more orphans being abandoned either willfully or by the death of their parents in South and Southeastern Asia. This is a crisis because the future of nations depend upon the stability and future productivity of their children (Whetten et al
This may simply be the result of better assessment of patients and outcomes however, and not a result of the actual ethnicity or cultural background of the patient seeking care. Addressing Trauma in Patients There are many different methods for addressing a specific traumatic incident, including Traumatic Incident Reduction (TIR) and Thematic Trauma Incident Reduction (TIR) (Ditrich, et
These recollected experiences vary from person to person, not simply based on cultural or social factors, but also on individual coping mechanisms, personalities, support systems and personal perceptions of the traumatic experience as a whole; a physician can't' simply predict how any one person will react to trauma; rather they must rely on accurate clinical assessment and careful analysis of the patient's responses, pathology and demeanor to assess a patients well being and condition (Holman, 2000:803). Studies conducted of the traumatic experiences of individuals indicate that people's perceptions of trauma are highly varied, and their recollections of significant traumatic events vary substantially, and often do not reflect the true symptomology or pathology of the trauma 100% (Christianson, 1992: 309; Van der Kolk & Fisler, 1995:1)
To understand trauma one must first examine the prevalence of trauma and its impact on society. Research suggests that a majority of individuals will experience some form of trauma at one point or another during their lives (Holman, 2000:808)
Many patients disassociate their experiences at the moment of trauma, where they in effect compartmentalize their experience so that elements of the traumatic experience are stores as fragments in their mind (Nemiah, 1998; Van der Kolk & Fisler, 1995). According to Janet "forgetting the event which precipitated the emotion has frequently been found to accompany intense emotional experiences in the form of amnesia" (Janet, 1925, 1607; from van der Kolk & Fisler, 1995)
Research also suggests that trauma can result in extremes of memory retention and forgetting, that "terrifying experiences may be remembered with extreme vividness or totally resist integration" (Van der Kolk & Fisler, 1995:1). Many patients disassociate their experiences at the moment of trauma, where they in effect compartmentalize their experience so that elements of the traumatic experience are stores as fragments in their mind (Nemiah, 1998; Van der Kolk & Fisler, 1995)
According to Janet "forgetting the event which precipitated the emotion has frequently been found to accompany intense emotional experiences in the form of amnesia" (Janet, 1925, 1607; from van der Kolk & Fisler, 1995). Culture and Social Orientation Related to Trauma Some segments of society are more likely to experience trauma and develop trauma related psychiatric disorders, including segments of the populations characterized as having a low socio-economic status, those that are minorities, and even refugees fleeing ethnic strife (Palinkas, 2000: 812)
According to Janet "forgetting the event which precipitated the emotion has frequently been found to accompany intense emotional experiences in the form of amnesia" (Janet, 1925, 1607; from van der Kolk & Fisler, 1995). Culture and Social Orientation Related to Trauma Some segments of society are more likely to experience trauma and develop trauma related psychiatric disorders, including segments of the populations characterized as having a low socio-economic status, those that are minorities, and even refugees fleeing ethnic strife (Palinkas, 2000: 812)
Studies conducted of the traumatic experiences of individuals indicate that people's perceptions of trauma are highly varied, and their recollections of significant traumatic events vary substantially, and often do not reflect the true symptomology or pathology of the trauma 100% (Christianson, 1992: 309; Van der Kolk & Fisler, 1995:1). Rather people tend to consolidate memory and relate it to personal or cultural experiences, and accurate recall over time generally is said to decline (Van Der Kolk & Fisler, 1995:1)
Finally, the authors suggest that debriefing is a standard procedure in handling trauma, so more consideration and accurate assessment is necessary to make it the most effective and best quality treatment, only when it works best for a particular situation. (Raphael, Meldrum, McFarlane, 1995) "Psychological debriefing for preventing post traumatic stress disorder" also attempts to fill the lack of empirical data in this area
They conclude that one debriefing session is useless and that early interventions for PTSD should be the primary goal of psychologists. (Rose, Bisson, Wessely, 2009) Both articles agree that this is an area of research that demands more attention from the psychological community
Respondents to the test rate the symptom item based on the frequency of occurrence over the preceding six months. The rating uses a four-point likert scale from 0-never to 3-often (Ghetti et al
The first measurement with the scale was a survey of traumatic stress professionals published in Briere (1995). In the first clinical trial, Briere (1995) carried out a discriminant function analysis to test the relationship of the normative sample of TSI-T scores and the four modes of traumatic experiences (Purves & Erwin, 2004)
The manuals can be obtained online from PAR, location http://www.parinc.com at $182 (Strauss et al