Nevertheless, controversy concerning the efficacy and appropriateness of the treatment modality remains. According to the definition provided by one therapist, "EMDR is a comprehensive treatment protocol in which the client attends to emotionally disturbing material in short sequential doses while simultaneously focusing on an external stimulus (therapist-directed eye movements, hand-tapping, auditory tones)" (Figley, 2002, p
4). Although everyone is unique and different levels of resiliency can mitigate some of these effects (Hagenaars & van Minnen, 2011), some people appear to be at higher risk because of preexisting mental schemas or past traumatic life experiences that can exacerbate future traumatic experiences
Furthermore, suicidality is frequently seen in both disorders. This overlap in clinical presentation of the two disorders has lead some researchers to argue for a distinct depressive subtype of PTSD, rather than the presence of two separate disorders (Jovanovic et al
e., Operation Enduring Freedom or OEF and Operation Iraqi Freedom or OIF) diagnosed with psychiatric disorders are at higher risk for suicide (Jakupcak, Vannoy, Imel, Cook, Fontana, Rosenheck & McFall, 2010; Lighthall, 2010; Gomulka, 2010)
e., Operation Enduring Freedom or OEF and Operation Iraqi Freedom or OIF) diagnosed with psychiatric disorders are at higher risk for suicide (Jakupcak, Vannoy, Imel, Cook, Fontana, Rosenheck & McFall, 2010; Lighthall, 2010; Gomulka, 2010)
According to these researchers, "Studies have found rates of PTSD and SUD comorbidity as high as 25-59%. Having PTSD and increased psychiatric distress associated with comorbid disorders is associated with poorer substance use outcomes" (Jason et al
Likewise, Nelson (2011) emphasizes that while the prevalence rates for PTSD among the general population is around 7.8%, the prevalence rates of PTSD for combat veterans returning from combat tours in the Middle East are estimated to be at least 17% and most authorities agree that this estimate is low -- in some cases far too low (Kearney, McDermott, Malte, Martinez & Simpson, 2012)
Moreover, other authorities believe that the actual prevalence rate of PTSD among the combat veteran population may be as high as 52% (Corso, Bryan, Morrow, Appolonio, Dodendorf & Baker, 2009) or 60% (Kearney et al., 2012), and some go so far as to suggest that the actual prevalence rate of PTSD among returning combat veterans may be far higher because the overwhelming majority (about 90%) of combat veterans who develop PTSD do not seek treatment (Kilmer, Eibner, Ringel and Pacula, 2011)
The PDS has demonstrated satisfactory test-retest reliability, internal consistency, and convergent and concurrent validity Source: Adapted from Foa & Meadows, 1999 The treatment and management of PTSD. There is a general consensus that absent psychiatric disturbances, the experiencing of a trauma does not constitute sufficient basis for receiving treatment (Foa & Meadows, 1999)
, numbing, disassociation, avoidance), and (c) hyperarousal (i.e., increased vigilance, overly jumpy, insomnia) (Nelson, 2011)
1). Comorbid substance use disorder and PTSD has been linked with greater symptom severity, worse treatment outcomes, and increased medical and legal problems than with PTSD alone (Peller, Najavitis, Nelson, LaBrie & Shaffer, 2010)
e., Operation Enduring Freedom or OEF and Operation Iraqi Freedom or OIF) diagnosed with psychiatric disorders are at higher risk for suicide (Jakupcak, Vannoy, Imel, Cook, Fontana, Rosenheck & McFall, 2010; Lighthall, 2010; Gomulka, 2010)
IPT works by improving patients' interpersonal functioning and emotion regulation, which are commonly impaired in PTSD and therefore, important targets for change. Social support, which IPT helps patients to mobilize, has been shown to be a key factor in preventing and recovering from PTSD (Rafaeli & Markowitz, 2011)
Cognitive-behavioral therapies (CBT), for instance, are the most widely used and have been shown to be effective primarily with asymptomatic PTSD patients (Sharpless & Barber, 2011). More promising interventions have also been identified based on the CBT model, including various exposure therapies (also referred to as flooding, imaginal, in vivo, or directed exposure) including the so-called "prolonged exposure" approach (Rothbaum & Schwartz, 2002)
The individual's response to such a traumatic event must include severe helplessness, fear or horror. Researchers working with the Department of Veterans Affairs and the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas further define PTSD as "an anxiety disorder that may develop following exposure to trauma" (Shad, Suris & North, 2011, p
5). Although pharmacological interventions have been used with mixed results, the most promising approach to effectively treating PTSD appears to be evidence-based clinical interventions (Sharpless & Barber, 2011)
S. Iraq War veterans currently exceeds 12% among veterans who recently returned from overseas, and even higher at 16% among service members evaluated a year following their return from duty in Iraq (Vasterling, Proctor, Friedman, Hoge, Heeren, King & King, 2010)
1240). These researchers add, though, that there is a growing body of evidence that indicates sleep disturbance plays a key role in mental health in that insomnia often precedes the development of conditions such as depression, anxiety, and alcohol abuse (Wright et al
Review study 2 Another study entitled "Comparative Profiles of Women with PTSD and Comorbid Cocaine or Alcohol Dependence" explores the issue of PTSD and Cocaine or Alcohol dependence. The foundation for this study is the assertion that "substance-dependent individuals with comorbid PTSD evidenced a more severe clinical profile and worse treatment prognosis than individuals with a substance use disorder alone or with PTSD alone (Back et al
There is also some indication that the older participants suffer from more severe PTSD because the alcohol/PTSD was older than the cocaine/PTSD group. Review Study 3 final study entitled Victimization and PTSD in Individuals with Substance Use Disorders: Gender and Racial Differences" seeks to report the gender and racial differences between Victimization and PTSD in Individuals with Substance Use Disorders (Dansky et al