2007). In the case of having a tissue sample to be tested, early stage cervical cancer can be differentiated from healthy cervical tissue by gene expression profile due to comparisons done with healthy and lymph node metastatic tissues which found certain genes upregulated and down regulated (Biewenga, P
2009). Preceded by precursor legions, invasive cervical cancer is characterized by disturbances of the "cellular maturation, stratification, and nuclear atypia…" (Boulet, G
Eighteen types of HPV are known to be oncogenic: 16, 18, 45, 31, 33, 52, and 58 with types 16 and 18 accounting for 70% of all cervical cancer cases (GlaxoSmithKline). The virus itself is a non-enveloped double stranded DNA virus (Steben 2007) containing 8,000 base pairs and encoding for two separate protein classes (Ellenson, L
2004). More sophisticated methods such as the use of MR imaging before, during and after radiation therapy is providing accuracy in the main evaluation of prognostic factors and staging (Engin, G
Now it is known that HPV is a necessary step in the acquisition of cervical cancer and is present in 99.7% of all invasive cervical carcinomas (Gius, D
2004). Indeed, HPV types and 16 and 18 have been found to complex with p53, resulting in its ubiquitin-dependent degradation, taking away its control of the cell cycle -- a hallmark of most cancers (Hu, X
Pathophysiology of Cervical Cancer Every two minutes, somewhere in the world, a woman dies from cervical cancer (GlaxoSmithKline 2007). Caused by persistent or continuous infection by human papillomavirus (HPV), cervical cancer progresses slowly over a number of years (GlaxoSmithKline 2007) and is the second most common cancer for women around the world (Ivansson E
When tumors lose the expression of certain MHC class I molecules, as seen in cervical cancers, the reason may be because of an immunoselection by T cells specific for he peptides presented by MHC I. The loss of the MHC I expression invariably results in non-recognition by cytotoxic T cells (Janeway, C
This vaccine is the direct result of over two decades of research and ongoing trials to find a male equivalent vaccine are underway utilizing a number of species. Papillomavirus infections, however, are species restricted and do not infect of induce changes in the morphology of animal tissues, thus requiring the use of species specific HPV which is hard to equate to humans due to no cervico-vaginal challenge or natural sexual transmission (Schiller, J
et al. 1983) and later statistical analysis showed that the chromosome abnormalities were nonrandom, implicating viral sites and proto-oncogene locations within the chromosomes (Sreekantaiah, C
Up to 80% of women will acquire HPV infection by age 50 (GlaxoSmithKline 2007) and for women between the ages of 20-24 years old, the infection rate is 44.8% (Steben 2007)
2006). Currently there is an HPV vaccine for women that have been shown to be 100% effective against HPV types 16 and 18, preventing subsequent development of CIN (Steller, M
As of 2009 the number of cervical cancer diagnoses stood at 11,270 with 4,070 resultant deaths (National Cancer Institute 2010). Prior to HPV being targeted as the main culprit of cervical cancer, mitotic abnormalities and chromosome rearrangements showed a stepwise progression of tumorigenesis (Therman, E
2002). E2 is a functional elimination as it acts as a viral repressor, while E6 and E7 act as promoters (Yu, T
2004). While most viral DNA replicates extrachromosomally, HPV integrates into the cellular DNA and results in the deletion of large areas of the viral genome including L1 and L2 along with E2 and E5 which leaves E6 and E7 as the primary remaining open reading frames (Zur Hausen, et al
Typically, the first sign of breast cancer is a lump that feels different from the rest of the breast tissue. Nearly 80% of diagnoses of breast cancer are made because of the discovery of a lump (Gotzsche & Nielsen, 2011)
Nearly 80% of diagnoses of breast cancer are made because of the discovery of a lump (Gotzsche & Nielsen, 2011). There are other symptoms in some women, however, including a change or thickening of breast tissue, a breast that is becomes lower or larger than the other, swelling near the collarbone or under the armpit, a rash that develops on or around the nipple, an inverted nipple or one that changes shape or position, and discharge coming from the nipple (Saini, et al
The discharge may be clear or it may be bloody. Pain can also be present in breast cancer, but for the most part it is not a reliable indicator of whether the disease is present or not (Sariego, 2010)
Sudden increase in blood flow leads to calcium ion accumulation that may result to fatal cardiac arrhythmias as well as acceleration of self-destruction. In addition, the flow of blood exaggerates inflammation response of the affected tissues, triggering white blood cells to destroy slightly damaged cells that may still be viable elsewhere (Bijlani et al
The implication of narrowing is that blood flow to the myocardium is impeded thus leading to the condition described as ischemic. Therefore, occurrence of this condition in the left ventricle is because of impeded oxygen blood flow rather than oxygen content per cubic millimeter of blood (Mann, 2010)