According to behaviorist theory since the rats were never reinforced for learning they should not have been able to find food or water later; however, Tolman had argued that the rats had made "cognitive maps" of the maze and this is why they knew where the food (or water) was (Tolman, 1948). Tolman's views would later be adopted by other psychologists such as Uric Neisser to develop the cognitive perspective of psychology (Neisser, 1967)
Given their views the humanists are often considered to have the most positive outlook on behavior and personality compared to the previous paradigms. Using the Rogerian ideals of therapist empathy, genuineness, and unconditional positive regard will enhance any group counseling format (Okiishi, Lambert, Nielsen, & Ogles, 2003)
Personal Model This writer has come to believe that an integrative therapy/counseling approach is the best approach for the treatment of addictions and compulsive behaviors. The difference between integrative psychotherapy and eclectic psychotherapy is that integrative therapy ties together at least two different elements from at least two different schools of thought into a unified theoretical approach, whereas eclectic approaches combine different techniques from different schools on a case by case basis (Palmer & Woolfe, 1999)
Therefore in group counseling the combination of these factors can bring together a viable counseling environment. Ethical and Cultural Issues There are several important issues to consider here (Pope & Vasquez, 2010): 1
However, there are some other principles that Rogers explored that are also important in group counseling for compulsive behaviors or addictions. Rogers believed that every person had a drive towards self-actualization, but this drive was hindered by the "shoulds" which are attitudes people accept as being valid, but are actually based on false perceptions of what the person believes will validate them as a person (Rogers, 1965)
Essentially the behaviorists took the view that what was externally observable was important and human behavior was based on the reinforcement or punishment of like behaviors in the past. In its most extreme form behaviorism viewed the mind as a "black box" from which little useful information could be derived (Skinner, 1966)
Later when half the rats were deprived of food and the other half were deprived of water they returned to the spot in the maze that would allow then to satisfy their needs. According to behaviorist theory since the rats were never reinforced for learning they should not have been able to find food or water later; however, Tolman had argued that the rats had made "cognitive maps" of the maze and this is why they knew where the food (or water) was (Tolman, 1948)
The other four paradigms have direct applications to therapy and counseling for a number of different conditions. Psychotherapy or counseling for addictions has often been considered a difficult enterprise (Wurmser, 1978), but if approached from an integrative manner counseling for addictions and compulsive behaviors in a group or individual format can be effective
Substance abuse is a significant problem for all Americans. Research has revealed increased risk factors including exposure to drugs among African-American males, making a race-specific intervention program necessary to ensure recovery success rates (Wallace & Muroff, 2002)
rural living environment, and socio-economic class status will all impact attitudes toward treatment, treatment decisions, and treatment outcomes. Moreover, comorbidity issues also vary by racial category, including comorbidity with alcohol abuse, anxiety, depression, personality disorders, and affective disorders (Ziedonis, Rayford, Bryant & Rounsaville, 1994)
Most therapeutic group programs involve 3 major stages: initial, transition, and working (Corey & Corey, 1997), or the 5 stage version: forming, storming, norming, performing, and terminating (University of Illinois at Urbana Psychology Dept, 2010). In the initial stage of the 3 step process, group members get to know one another, and are apt to develop either an "in or out" feeling (Bandy, 2010)
This possibility of developing feelings of alienation makes it critical for leaders to "maintain a basic posture of concern, acceptance, genuineness and empathy toward the group members" (Bandy, 2010, slide 5). Guidelines and normative behaviors are discussed, and group and individual goals are set (Brodsky, 1999)
5) Other benefits of group therapy include information-sharing, a sense of belonging, catharsis, emotional support, progress through confrontation, and development of altruism and social skills (University of Illinois at Urbana Psychology Dept, 2010) There are many variations of group therapy, including multi-family, Adlerian, support, self-help, and counseling or psychotherapy (University of Illinois at Urbana Psychology Dept, 2010). Most therapeutic group programs involve 3 major stages: initial, transition, and working (Corey & Corey, 1997), or the 5 stage version: forming, storming, norming, performing, and terminating (University of Illinois at Urbana Psychology Dept, 2010)
It is also critical that group members leave the process with a sense of accomplishment and optimism for the future (Brodsky, 1999); this can occur only after any unresolved or underlying conflicts are brought to the surface and dealt with. The termination stage may also need to be considered from different angles, such as: was the time boundary sufficient? Do individuals feel free to express their ambivalence about leaving and feel empowered to leave on their own terms? How best to deal with the situation when the leader or therapist himself must make a premature departure? Researchers have found that the termination stage deserves more attention than it often receives (Sonstegard & al, 2004)
A successful model for pre-group training may include encouraging patients to create a list of successes and define ways they may help other members of the group focus on their successes and goals rather than the problems that often cause them to seek therapy to begin with. Proposition Overcoming And Encouraging Positive Group Therapy Many problems arising with group therapy stem from counseling that focuses on problems rather than solutions (Laursen & Oliver, 2003)
Group therapy is often a primary treatment mode for substance abuse disorders as the authors point out, but little research has been conducted in the way of treatment outcomes for these groups. Multiple studies support the use of cognitive behavioral approaches in individual therapy combined with group therapy sessions to support self-care behavior, self-efficacy and positive patient outcomes (Van der Ven, et
Resistance Group Therapy For decades researchers have attempted to discover whether resistance to group therapy is more harmful than beneficial, and uncover what methods they can adopt to overcome resistance. Much research supports resistance as a common occurrence in group therapy (Waller, 1993)
In creating behavioral contracts within the setting of a group, group members are encouraged to work as a team in order to reach the intended goal. Contracting for behavior change can be an effective method of introducing increased clarity, definition, and task orientation to verbal material that otherwise might remain vague and abstract within a group (Berg, Fall, and Landreth 2006, pp
A group in which such dynamics remain present will not and cannot function appropriately. Initial Stages of Group Development In the initial period of group development and counseling, the group counselor generally attempts to support the open expression of feelings among clients (Bonney and Ginter 1993, pp
While it is noted that the first two sessions ran smoothly, which would indicate the basis for productive initial group development, the leadership styles of the two previous group leaders is never mentioned, which further poses the question of whether group members accepted and actively participated in said sessions, or if they were dictated to as they believe John has done and chose to remain complacent during the initial adjustment period to the group itself. The Role of Contracting and Group Structure Behavior contracting is a therapeutic technique in which an agreement is reached with a client, usually in the form of a signed contract, which makes clear the consequences that would follow certain identified behaviors (Carns and Carns 1994, pp