The potential value of practical security applications of Ekman's principles and techniques in the contemporary climate of global terrorism and counterterrorism efforts is difficult to overestimate, particularly in light of contemporaneous evidence by Ekman, O'Sullivan, & Frank (1991), DePaulo, Lindsay, & Malone, et al. (2003), and numerous others reported in scientific literature (Stanovich, 2007) conclusively establishing the universality of human facial expressions and cues to deliberate deception and concealment of emotions and intent across all human cultures
In particular, patrol officers focus on specific behaviors and linguistic cues consistent with deception, including patterns of eye contact, word choice, and behavioral indicators such as repeating the officer's questions or reflexive questions like "What?" Or "Who, me?" Or "Huh" in contexts where it is clear that the subject heard the question clearly the first time. In that regard, officers compare the apparent difference in supposed comprehension of non-incriminating questions like "Do you live here?" And potentially incriminating questions like "Did you argue with the victim at all today?" (Conlon, 2004)
Criminal Justice - Investigations DECEPTION in INVESTIGATION, INTERROGATION, and TESTIMONY Deception Detection in Criminal Investigation: Criminal investigation includes the evaluation of statements for truthfulness or deception at every stage of investigation and interrogation, as well as during sworn testimony. In that regard, trained criminal investigators must be aware of numerous cues available in the content of conversations, the context of word choice, omissions intended to conceal information of guilt of complicity, and nonverbal cues in posture, eye contact, and unconscious physical gestures intended to mislead investigators or conceal the truth (Sandoval, 2008)
Specifically, individuals attempting to lie to investigators do not lie directly as often as indirectly, such as by omitting information instead of making affirmative statements that are untrue (Sandoval, 2008; Schafer, 2008). Examples of passive attempts to misrepresent information during criminal investigators and sworn testimony tend to employ text bridges in the form of words and phrases like "and then" or "later on" where their criminal conduct took place during the period of time corresponding to those text bridges (Schafer, 2008)
Deception During the Investigative Phase: Guilty individuals who wish to conceal their responsibility for or involvement in criminal activity tend to be deceptive at every phase of the investigative process, beginning with their first contact with investigative authorities, regardless of who initiates that contact. For this reason, deception detection is crucial for patrol officers responding to crime scenes as well as for subsequent investigators (Schmalleger, 2008; Sweeney, 2005) Specifically, statement analysis of emergency service calls to authorities via 911 systems provide a wealth of information capable of distinguishing victims and innocent uninvolved individuals from perpetrators concealing their criminal involvement (Adams & Harpster, 2008)
This author reports that, "Strictly speaking, game theory and decision theory are not that distinct; a decision is also said to be a game against nature, i.e., against an unintentional actor" (Edling, p
2). Today, game theory is a popular analytical tool in economics and political science, and to a lesser degree, psychology, sociology, and the other social sciences (Flanagan)
Likewise, Gratton and Jones (2003) emphasize that a review of the literature represents an essential starting point for almost all types of research projects today: "No matter how original you think the research question may be," they advise, "it is almost certain that your work will be building on the work of others. It is here that the review of such existing work is important" (Gratton & Jones, p
Therefore, game theory provides researchers with a framework that allows the modeling of various decision making scenarios to identify the superior course of action for each player which can consist of an outright "win" or, in the alternative, the minimization of potential negative outcomes. Statement of the Problem Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s and the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, some observers were heard to lament the passing of the "good old days of Communism" when the enemy was well-known and all of the actors were states with known geographic coordinates (Kelemen & Kostera, 2002)
¶ … Game of Deception (Game Theory) Developing a Game of Deception using Game Theory Game theory is the theory of independent and interdependent decision making that is concerned with organizational decision making wherein the outcome involves the types of decisions made by two or more autonomous players, one of which may be nature itself, and in which no single decision-maker has complete control over the outcomes (Kelly, 2003)
77). The term "zero-sum game" is used to describe this because the gain achieved by one player is regarded as a loss to another; because the loss and gain cancel each other out, the net result is a sum of zero, therefore the name "zero-sum game"; in addition, this game is also known as a "constant sum game" since irrespective of the choices made or strategies used, the sum of the payoffs to both players will be a constant (Khan)
Game theory provides the ability to subject particular insights and intuitions to the test of logical consistency. Game theory helps trace back from observations to underlying assumptions to determine what assumptions are really at the heart of particular conclusions (Kreps, 1990)
e., option 1 or option 2); likewise, the opposing player has four strategies: (a) execute their option 1 regardless of what the first person does; (b) execute their option 2 regardless of what the first person does; - execute their option 1 if the first player chooses their option 1, and their option 2 if the first player chooses their option 2 (tit-for-tat); or (d) execute their option 2 if the first player chooses their option 1, and their option 1 if the first player chooses his or her option 1 (tat-for-tit) (Read, p
1). Although game theory has been extended into a number of human endeavors in an effort to model real-world behaviors, its origins were focused on identifying theoretical solutions to the problems posed by uncertainty in games of chance (Schmidt, 2002)
197). Although game theory has been used for a wide range of industrial, sociological and environmental applications, historically, game theory has been used to model specific model military situations to identify superior alternatives (Schofield, 1999)
In cooperative game theory, the unit of analysis is most frequently the group or, in the standard jargon, the coalition; when a game is specified, part of the specification is what each group or coalition of players can achieve, without too much reference to how the coalition would effect a particular outcome or result (Kreps). There is also a relatively recent innovation known as evolutionary game theory (EGT), which is "a formal, mathematical approach within evolutionary economics, which thus far has been mainly applied to economics as a refinement of the Nash equilibrium concept" (Villena & Villena, 2004, p
197). The use of game theory for such military applications is certainly not new, but dates back to at least World War II and thereafter when concepts of zero-sum two-person games were used to evaluate weapons systems (Weintraub, 1992)
Even when there is forensic evidence, such as DNA results, it has been shown that in some cases this evidence has been suppressed while witnesses were suborned and committed perjury. Even lineups were found to be rigged so that the person the police believe is guilty appears the most plausible choice (Barker 61)
. It is difficult to establish what actually occurred to elicit a confession, especially if the confession resulted in a conviction" (Conti, p
First of all, interrogation is highly stressful (especially for the suspect). Many of the methods used by police to elicit confessions create a "wide range of behavioral and physiological disturbances" on the part of the suspect, "including inability to discern reality" (Gudjonsson, p 104), trance-like states where truth and falsehood become confused and the suspect begins to "obey" instructions and suggestions ordinarily rejected