They suggest that beginning during the junior year and more prominently during the senior year, peers, teachers, counselors become more influential. The influence of peers in the school setting has been documented widely (Brown, 1990; Steinberg, Dornbusch, & Brown, 1992) and adolescence is the developmental period in which individuals are most influenced by their peers (Goodenow & Grady, 1993)
These events can impact school district funding as well as student's families. Socioeconomic status and availability of resources greatly impact the decision-making processes of students (Chapman, 1981; Conklin & Dailey, 1981; Hossler, Schmit, & Vesper, 1999; Stage & Hossler, 1989)
Macrosystem Factors This layer is composed of the values, law, customs, cultural milieu, subculture, economic change, and labor market (Bronfenbrenner, 1986). A number of research studies have shown that they can be the source of influence most remote from the developing person's immediate experience but nevertheless the source that impacts the child through the attitudes, practices, and convictions shared throughout society at large (Cobb, McIntire, and Pratt, 1989; Chapman, 1981; Conklin & Dailey, 1981; Hossler, Schmit, & Vesper, 1999; Stage & Hossler, 1989)
Areas with high population density and low tax output will result in less per student expenses; costs of tuition, books and stationary will be higher for students; the district school-board will not have adequate funds for extra curricular educational activities; and in some places they may not even have adequate funds for fundamental educational activities; lastly, the quality of education given to students in these high density areas will negatively influence student achievement. The same is true for high population density areas with high tax output and/or low population density areas (Coleman, 1990; Bourdieu and Wacquant, 1992; Putnam, 1993)
Areas with high population density and low tax output will result in less per student expenses; costs of tuition, books and stationary will be higher for students; the district school-board will not have adequate funds for extra curricular educational activities; and in some places they may not even have adequate funds for fundamental educational activities; lastly, the quality of education given to students in these high density areas will negatively influence student achievement. The same is true for high population density areas with high tax output and/or low population density areas (Coleman, 1990; Bourdieu and Wacquant, 1992; Putnam, 1993)
An effective school should be a place to raise students' achievements. Researchers also suggest that students in different types of schools have different levels of academic achievement due to the disparity school resources (Cowling, 2004)
When the district size is large, students benefit from larger schools, variety in curriculum, superior school facilities and more diverse program offerings (Goldsmith, 2004). Similarly, students in slammer sized districts benefit from more in-class hours and close contact of teachers with both student and his/her parents (DeBaryshe, Patterson & Capaldi, 1993)
If parents in these families perceive education as an important means of social mobility, and that educated people, regardless of their ethnic origin or race, have equal opportunities within the labour market, students are likely to have higher academic achievements (Khattab, 2002). Social class or socioeconomic status (SES) has been proved to be another salient factor that affects educational and vocational achievements (Devine, 2004; Karen, 1988)
For example, flexible work schedule, paid maternity leave, sick leave for parents whose children are sick, and parents' workplaces do not include the child, but nonetheless may influence and impact the child's development (Bronfenbrenner, 1986). A school board that sets educational policies that are relevant to the child is reflective of exosystem influences (Geoffrey, 1998; Goldenberg, 2001)
District Size and Student Achievement The district size has been positively associated with student achievement. When the district size is large, students benefit from larger schools, variety in curriculum, superior school facilities and more diverse program offerings (Goldsmith, 2004)
They suggest that beginning during the junior year and more prominently during the senior year, peers, teachers, counselors become more influential. The influence of peers in the school setting has been documented widely (Brown, 1990; Steinberg, Dornbusch, & Brown, 1992) and adolescence is the developmental period in which individuals are most influenced by their peers (Goodenow & Grady, 1993)
In an investigation of 277 distinct approximates of the impact of class size as well as teacher-pupil ratios on student achievement, Hanushek concluded, "ignoring the statistical significance, or the confidence that we have that there is a true relationship, we find that the estimates are almost equally divided between those suggesting that small classes are better and those suggesting that they are worse." (Hanushek, 1999: 147)
Specifically, parents' involvement within the school in conjunction with teachers' involvement with families represent mesosystem functioning. In addition, the community at large is also expected to affect a family's ability to provide the necessary support for their child (Henderson, 1994; Wilson and Wilson, 1992; Bourdieu, 1977, 1999) Exosystem Factors The exosystem refers to social settings that do not contain the developing person, but that affect experiences in immediate settings
Furthermore, the advances in technology and the structural changes in the world today means that simply graduating from high school is no longer enough for both males and females to lead meaningful and productive lives. Even a four-year college degree in today's society does not necessarily guarantee job and/or financial security (Hossler, Schmit, & Vesper, 1999; Stage & Hossler, 1989)
Furthermore, the advances in technology and the structural changes in the world today means that simply graduating from high school is no longer enough for both males and females to lead meaningful and productive lives. Even a four-year college degree in today's society does not necessarily guarantee job and/or financial security (Hossler, Schmit, & Vesper, 1999; Stage & Hossler, 1989)
Furthermore, the advances in technology and the structural changes in the world today means that simply graduating from high school is no longer enough for both males and females to lead meaningful and productive lives. Even a four-year college degree in today's society does not necessarily guarantee job and/or financial security (Hossler, Schmit, & Vesper, 1999; Stage & Hossler, 1989)
Furthermore, the advances in technology and the structural changes in the world today means that simply graduating from high school is no longer enough for both males and females to lead meaningful and productive lives. Even a four-year college degree in today's society does not necessarily guarantee job and/or financial security (Hossler, Schmit, & Vesper, 1999; Stage & Hossler, 1989)
These studies have found that students who are part of a family with strong relationship ties (rich in social capital) between parents and themselves are more likely than others to develop high academic achievements and later on ambitious education plans. This social capital influences students' educational achievements, for the most part, through the parents' norms and values, and their expectations and perceptions of education (Khattab, 2002)
This social capital influences students' educational achievements, for the most part, through the parents' norms and values, and their expectations and perceptions of education (Khattab, 2002). In families where social relationship ties between parents and children are strong, students are more likely to adopt their parents' values, norms and perceptions (McDonough, 1997)
Population Density and Location A number of researchers point out that students from poor rural and urban districts perform less well than students from rich suburban districts (Broomhall and Johnson, 1994; Broomhall, 1993; DeYoung, 1985). These researchers believe that the present funding disparity is responsible for this achievement gap (Mulkey, 1993; McDowell, et al