The nature of what might be called 'social deviance' typical of adolescent behavior, however, was quite mild in what I saw, mainly manifesting itself in terms of attitude. The main transgressive actions were collectively disobeying traffic guidelines, putting themselves at risk more than drivers: deviancy is often "distinctly unheroic" in adolescents and is often more risky with negative consequences to the self (Hobbs 207)
And adolescents in bathing suits shouting greetings to one another on the beach, or on bicycles formed another 'world,' a world connected by motion and language. While childhood, by some ethnographers has been called a "microcosm" of adult society, as the assumptions and needs of adulthood are imposed upon the body of the child, in American society it is very typical for adolescents, even younger adolescents to create their own, clearly-defined societies, language and social enclaves distinct from adult culture (James 247)
This was a very common way for young people to create their own private spaces. They shouted to one another in a linguistic display of their unity, often using one another's names or slang that could not be identified by a casual listener: exhibiting the deployment of "language as cultural knowledge" (Keating 287)
Other beach-goers used the shade of their umbrellas on the beach itself, or simply pulled their chairs or towel away from the crowds. "Material forms play a fundamental part in the creation and establishment of forms of sociability" (Tilley 260)
Children model their behaviors on others: peers and adults. Although cognitive capacity does limit behavior to some extent, "much important learning by the child occurs through social interaction with a skillful tutor" (McLeod 2007)
During the preoperational stage, children tend to be very egocentric. "Children view things that are happening around them in only one point-of-view," namely their own (Presnell 1999)
1). Further, psychologist note that this attention to discrete substances and relationships means that "we arrive at generalizations about humanity, but we can lose sight of the human being we were looking at to begin with" -- the human being who makes things happen and who act within the world (Ash, Dreher & Hancock, 2006, p
Psychological Research Methods In order to fully understand the problems that such research methods can produce for researchers, one must first understand the basics of the traditional research model and the multicultural research model, respectively. Traditional psychological research has been involved primarily with trying to understand the various drives and motivations behind human actions (Cline, 2010, p
Drs. Louise Kidder and Michelle Fine note that mainstream psychology's traditional research practices can sometimes advance critical psychology's goals, as by quantifying the existence of inequality, yet narrowly-focused hypothesis-driven research often misses sources and consequences of injustice that open-ended qualitative methods are more likely to expose (Fine and Kidder, 1997, p
23). Author and psychologist Dennis Fox (2009) notes that "psychology's traditional practices and norms can hinder social justice, to the detriment of individuals and communities in general and of oppressed groups in particularly" (Fox, 2009, p
According to Walter J. Lonner, (2000) cross-cultural psychology can be thought of as a type of research methodology itself, rather than an entirely separate field within psychology, which can act as a bridge between a distinctly traditional method and this field (Lonner, 2000, p
However, of vital importance is to understand that the classroom is dynamic, and that theoretical models aside, there is no single "correct" way to manage a classroom, nor to observe. Rather, what is important to emphasize is the appropriateness of the instruction, feedback, and learning environment to that particular lesson, that particular population of students, that particular subject on that particular day (Saginor, 2008)
Despite this, and the fact that for years the "classroom," particularly in the elementary school, was seen as the private domain of the teacher, the 21st century has brought changes that tend to push for more systematic teacher appraisal and lesson evaluation, greater emphasis on the development of best practices and professional skills for new teachers, honing those of experienced teachers, and even increased interest in the classroom process by those who are charged with new curriculum ideas. In fact, the use of classroom observation as a developmental tool on a number of levels results in such emphasis that "skillfully handled classroom observation can benefit both the observer and the person observed, serving to inform and enhance the professional skill of both people" (Wragg, 1999, p
Nathan Bond, however, suggests that classroom management problems occur under two circumstances: 1) If students are dissatisfied with the material or bored they tend to manifest off-task behavior and, 2) If students are unclear about the particular expectations that the teacher has, or the lesson needs. In general, then, quality questioning keeps students on task, engaged, and because they are being asked to think about more than just facts, they will have far less time or energy to get off task and misbehave (Zukerman, 2007)
The fact that many Palestinian Sephardi Jews identified with Palestinian territory and believed that it was essential for them to live in Israel damaged their position in the area and influenced other communities in wanting to persecute them. These Jewish people saw reform as an opportunity to strengthen their group and were determined to do everything in their power in order to emerge as Jews instead of being categorized as Ottoman citizens (Campos, 461)
Similar to many communities that experienced progress during the early twentieth century, Jewish individuals in the Middle East felt that it was essential for them to develop a sense of identity. These people virtually believed that nations are not very different from individuals and that they are created "as historical actors, having spirits or souls, missions, wills, geniuses; they have places of origin / birth (cradles, often, in the national myth) and lineages (usually patrilineages), as well as life cycles that include birth, periods of blossoming and decay, and fears of death; they have as their physical referent territories that are bounded like human bodies" (Verdery, 229)
F. Skinner, who demonstrated that people repeat behaviors based on their likelihood to receive a reward (Corey, 2009)
Preschoolers Observation The observation took place at a local playground in a nearby park, because I felt that this would be the most comfortable, and therefore the most conducive environment for gathering the information I needed unobtrusively. I also chose this venue because according to renowned Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, playing is a critical part of the development process -- it enhances social exchanges, teaches a child patience such as how to wait their turn and inspires creative thinking and problems solving (Piaget, 1963)
One of the most important aspects of accurate observation is that the observer be able to isolate and distinguish one type of behavior from another. For example, when a primate scratches itself, is it engaging in ritual grooming behavior or is it simply scratching an insect bite? Researchers must be able to distinguish and catalogue such differences if they are to acquire a complete picture of the range of meaningful behaviors of an animal (Shanor & Kanwal, 2009)
This leadership style may also be described as democratic, where the leader encourages participation and input from other staff members and followers. Participative leadership enables multiple members of a group or team to participate in the decision making process, which can strengthen a groups achievements, motivation and dedication (Clark, 1997)