In addition, should a woman become pregnant, genital surgery may result in severe complications during vaginal delivery (Brant, 1995) Women who have undergone female genital mutilation have a higher risk for adverse obstetric outcomes than women who have not, and the risks seem to be greater with more severe mutilation, according to the first large-scale prospective study of the effects of female genital mutilation on maternal and neonatal outcomes. (Melhado, 2006) Female genital surgery is practiced in a cultural context and has complex social, political, and religious significance
In the United Nations1995 annual assessment of social and economic progress around the world, the Human Development Report noted that "Gender-specific violence is almost a cultural constant, both emerging from and reinforcing the social relationships that give men power over women." (Nelson, 1996, p
The overall implication is that this is just another cause celebre that is intent on simply wiping out cultures that are different than their own. (Nnaemeka, 2005) Rite of passage perform a significant role in the acceptance and inculturation of an individual, indeed even to the ultimate survival of that individual within their own society (Nyangweso, 2002)
He was tortured after his involvement in the Tiananmen Square protests, and he is appalled that Andrew's belief in his prime directive would have prevented the Americans from coming to his aid. (Pressley, 1996, p
Though it remains widespread, there is growing opposition to it. (Renteln, 2004, p
1 Overall, 38% of women reported experiencing genital cutting, and 46% of circumcised women already had or planned to have their daughters circumcised. (Rosenberg 151) In regards to the case study presented, Nawal is certainly feeling great pressure from many of her older family members to have her daughter go through this procedure
Indeed, I offer that the bulk of Kono women who uphold these rituals do so because they want to -- they relish the supernatural powers of their ritual leaders over against men in society, and they brace the legitimacy of female authority and, particularly, the authority of their mothers and grandmothers. (Shweder, 2000, p
Or she may simply be killed. "Only by increasing the value of females as something more than merely the bearer of sons, through enhanced social, political, and economic power for women, can we effectively and efficiently address the problem of human population expansion" (Spahn, 1997, p
"But it is manifested differently and in part determined by cultural issues: what is considered acceptable, what is not considered acceptable, how women are viewed, what men can get away with, and whether men are militarized or not." (Wilensky, 2003, p
Female Genital Mutilation All societies have certain socially-accepted norms of behavior that are based on age, gender, social distinction, culture and religion, and are often referred to as traditional practices, such as those relating to children, relations between women and men, and marriage and sexuality, however, one deeply rooted traditional practice that has severe health consequences for girls and women is female genital mutilation (Female1 pp). Female genital mutilation is the practice of removing parts of a female's genitalia, however, the amount of genitalia removed varies, depending on the tradition within a given culture (Hamilton pp)
Seventy-five percent of all cases are found in Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria, Somalia, and the Sudan, while 98% of females in Djibouti and Somalia undergo genital mutilation (Female pp). Many religious and cultural issues foster female genital mutilation, and although some proponents of the practice claim that it is required by Islam, there is no specific support for this claim in the Koran (Rimsza pp)
Another argument that people make in support of cultural relativism is the comparison to male circumcision, which is practiced, to some degree, around the world. This becomes a very interesting argument, particularly given that male circumcision is practiced at least among some groups of Ethiopian males so that Ethiopians could claim that circumcision is not gender-based in the country (Abusharaf 54)
These efforts may prove more successful than criminalization, alone. It is believed that, "while legislation may be enforceable in countries where only a small minority adhere to the practice, that is unlikely to be the case when the majority follow the tradition" (Althaus 133)
It is not unheard of for FGM to actually lead to death. In fact, "an estimated 15% of girls die postoperatively and those who do survive suffer countless ongoing complications and pain, as well as untold psychological suffering" (Carillet, Butler, and Stames 59)
However, while FGM may be correlated with Islam, the predominant religion in Ethiopia, it is critical to realize that it is not a religious requirement of Islam, which differentiates it from male circumcision and its relationship to Judaism. "Neither of the two main sources of Muslim law, the Koran and the Sunnah, mention the practice, and most Islamic scholars agree that it is not an Islamic religious rite" (Castledine)
However, whether or not this practice is considered acceptable from a religious perspective may depend significantly on the religious leader in charge of the local area. For example, in the Somali village of Faffan in Ethiopia, the imam of the village mosque makes it clear that not only does Islam not require FGM, but that it does not permit the practice (Getachew)
Women who have been able to show that, because of their membership in a particular social group, they are at risk of having FGM performed forcefully upon them, have been able to stay in the United States. However, the Courts have been careful not to extend the protection of asylum to all women at risk of FGM (Harivandi 608)
Even if the surgery were performed in the most hygienic of conditions and the risk of complications eliminated, the practice would still be horrific. "Healthy, sexually functional parts of the female body are removed without any medical indication whatsoever; restorative plastic surgery can only partially repair the damage" (Kool 52)
The reality is that violence against women is a huge problem in Ethiopia. "On the family level, there is domestic violence, including assault, forced labor, coerced prostitution, sexual harassment in the workplace, spousal murder, battering, incest, child marriage, female genital mutilation (FGM), marital psychological abuse, and rape" (Milkias 226)
Infibulations, which are still common in the country, and present the greatest health consequences for its victims, may be performed for an even more subjugative reason. Some Ethiopians "believe that infibulation adds pleasure to the husband during intercourse" (Westley 1)