Thus, organizations and societies themselves have created techniques to gradually eradicate this harmful ritual while at the same time preserving the cultural meaning that FGM has for the society. An example is "Cutting through words," a program that serves as an alternative for FGM, wherein young women are educated by the female elders, usually their mother or grandmother, about "personal health, reproduction, hygiene, communication skills, self-esteem and dealing with peer pressure" (Nzwili, 2003)
Unfortunately, the 97% figure has been reduced "only slightly," the Economist reports, but the good news is that there has been a shift from the use of midwives to primarily doctors who perform the mutilation. In conclusion, a research article in the Journal of Medicine and Philosophy (Bishop 2004 pp
An empirical study of 522 FGM cases in South-Western Nigeria. A research article in the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Dare, et al
In 2:187 of the Qur'an: "It is lawful for you to go in unto your wives during the night preceding the (day's) fast: they are as a garment for you and you are as a garment for them." From the perspective of international human rights issues, the World Health Organization (Dorkenoo and Mohammed 1998, pp
" "Psycho-sexual Effect of Female Genital Mutilation on Sudanese Men." In an article in The Ahfad Journal (Magied and Musa 2004, pp
Female Genital Mutilation -- a Review and Analysis How prevalent is the practice of female genital mutilation throughout the world? Why is it done, where is it done, and what are the human rights and morality implications? This paper will examine those questions, and provide information that supplements those issues. The Literature on Female Genital Mutilation There are four types of female genital mutilation (FGM), according to an article in the British Journal of Midwifery (Momoh 2004, p
" The position of the WHO has consistently been to "recommend that governments adopt clear national policies to abolish FGM," and to strengthen educational programs so that the public knows that FGM is a "serious health hazard" and also know that FGM "reinforces the inequality suffered by women in their communities." An article in WHO (Nybro 1998, p
How many females have been subjected to FGM -- in any of the four types mentioned above? Momoh writes that it worldwide it affects "more than 120 million women" and in addition, "an estimated two million girls are circumcised each year." According to another article in the British Journal of Midwifery (Sihwa and Baron, 2004, p
16 in Egypt, 97% of women have been circumcised; and 88% of women either think the practice should continue or have no opinion about its continuation (82% and 6%, respectively). (Boyle & Preves, 2000, p
This is later cut open after marriage for sex and birth. (Brant, 1995, p
.FGM/C nonetheless continues to be practiced, especially among poor and uneducated families who fear losing control over their daughters and compromising their morality and marital prospects" (Chavkin & Chesler, 2005, p
" Just as African patriarchs have fashioned a brutal practice that would ensure the virginity of their brides, the "spirit-killing regimes of male dominance" in the West rob women of their "reproductive rights" by seeking to outlaw abortion, by insisting on unnecessary mastectomies and Caesarean births, by demanding a kind of subservience that kills the rebellious high-spiritedness of little girls, and so on. (Eichman, 1992, p
It was a hideous and painful experience, she recalls. (Ezzat, 1994, p
That somehow this is tied to a biological fact of existence rather than simply a cultural or political issue: But for a cultural behavior, presumably not genetically transmitted, which is enforced by the group through a system of rewards and punishments, it becomes fairly clear why individuals choose to conform and how a new generation would acquire the behavior. Can the evolutionary success of such a behavior be judged by the differential rates of population growth of groups that do it and groups that do not? (Gruenbaum, 2000, p
According to Amnesty International, the practice of FGM is performed on more than 2,000,000 women out of whom 600,000 are in Africa. (Kalev, 2004, p
Bride burning persists in India despite laws against many of these practices, which are committed on cultural and religious grounds. (Kawewe & Dibie, 1999, p
It is a tradition that usually goes back many generations and its origins are often quite difficult to discern. In fact it predates both Islam and Christianity as evidenced by a Greek papyrus in found in Egypt dating from circa 163 BCE (Lane & Rubinstein)
That is why they practice the ritual. (Mackie, 2000) This is the full part of the dilemma between global human rights and individual cultures
. To what extent are women's rights recognized or rendered accessible within a human rights framework in their own culture? (Mangan, 2006, p
In addition, should a woman become pregnant, genital surgery may result in severe complications during vaginal delivery (Brant, 1995) Women who have undergone female genital mutilation have a higher risk for adverse obstetric outcomes than women who have not, and the risks seem to be greater with more severe mutilation, according to the first large-scale prospective study of the effects of female genital mutilation on maternal and neonatal outcomes. (Melhado, 2006) Female genital surgery is practiced in a cultural context and has complex social, political, and religious significance