Summary Violence: Theory and Ethnography begins with a description of the ethnic (or quasi-ethnic) genocide and general chaos that existed in Rwanda and Burundi during the latter decades of the twentieth century. The fragmentation unpredictable patterns of violence continued for years, with faction on both sides of the issue instigating fresh outbursts of killing and mayhem seemingly at random (Stewart & Strathern 2002)
Gregory's work expanded on that of Stack as it focused on the working class political activism and community among black residents North Corona and East Elmhurst, in Queens, New York. Until this point much of the research into black communities focused on poor communities and highlighted the disorganization and powerlessness of the people to change many aspects of their lives (Borges, p
Gregory stated, that Corona/East Elmhurst section "is a Black community, because, through much of its history, its residents have been subjected to practices of racial discrimination and subordination that inextricably tied their socioeconomic well-being and mobility to their racial identity and to the places where they have lived and raised their children. And, equally important, Corona is a Black community because its residents fought back as a Black community" (Gregory, pp
They share with one another because of the urgency of their needs. Alliances between individuals are created around the clock as kin and friends exchange and give and obligate one another, (Stack, p
Qualitative research was chosen as a means of highlighting the contextual nature of social life; allowing for the exploration of subjective meanings and perceptions, and identifying social dynamics and processes. "Qualitative studies, particularly ethnographic research, can explain in great detail the nuances of African-American family life and the parental activities and behaviors that may account for youth outcomes" (Burton, Allison, & Obeidallah, 1996; Jarrett, 1995)
This article examined the role of the non-biological fathers, particularly African-American uncle as a critical and oft overlooked source of social capital and social support in the lives of African-American male youth Jarrett, Roy, & Burton, 2002). A great deal of the earlier work completed with regard to social capital (Coleman, 1990) has provided analysis on the benefit of children by evaluating the presence or absence of two parents within the family
Single female-headed households were seen as socially deficient models of social capital, unable to prevent negative social capital. According to Robinson, the issue of social capital production within poor Black families is a question answered by assumption rather than examination, although some work has begun in that area (Furstenberg, 2001)
The relationship absence has been frequently correlated to many social problems experienced by Black male youth; particularly violent and delinquent behavior. There has been a significant body of scholarly literature that speaks to the role of the African-American grandmother as a 'heroic' figure in inner city poor families, who in a number of instances, serves as the primary caregiver and surrogate to the grandchildren (Pearson, et al
However the role of extended familial networks as surrogate fathers and primary caregivers to single family households continues to be lacking. Data from a recent qualitative research study on the social capital in the lives of at risk Black make youth shows that many single female headed households frequently rely on their brother-in-law, biological brothers and older male extended family members to serve as father figures in the absence of biological fathers to their adolescent boys (Richardson, 2009)
, 1990). With increased conversation and discourse on social capital in African-American families and communities, fatherhood and the influence on youth, especially regarding issues of juvenile delinquency, serious violent crimes, and educational success must move past the myopic and traditional defined role of biological parent or stepparent (Salem, Zimmerman, & Notaro, 1998)
The work on the role of African-American men within fictive kinship and extended familial networks as surrogate fathers has barely scratched the surface. Moreover, what happens within African-American families to generate lesser or greater amounts of social capital for children is yet unclear (Taylor, et al
We are still trying to sabotage, especially when the female is younger, thinner, more beautiful and smarter. While nurses are caring to patients, they can be horrific to each other" (Hoffman 2013)
Thus, an individual tries to adopt the norm of a group to be accepted by the member of the group. (Knippenberg, & Hogg, 2004)
According to the rule theory, customs, conventions, taboos, prohibition, principles, guidelines, and norms are a common concept. (Shimanoff, 1980)