And hRALY in both cancer and normal cells represents a timely and valuable enterprise as discussed further below. Chapter Two: Literature Review Background and Overview The need for reliable biomarkers for use in the early detection of cancer has been well established, but there remains a fundamental lack of specific biomarkers that are capable of assessing the effects of long-term exposure to various environmental conditions, even over the course of several decades (Brody & Rudel, 2003)
1894). The significance of this finding is summarized by these researchers thusly: "This finding adds to the growing body of evidence that alterations in alternative pre-mRNA splicing play important roles in different aspects of cancer progression" (Clower et al
Typically, uterine cancer affects the lining of the uterus, the endometrium and represents the fourth most common type of cancer currently affecting American women, with approximately 40,000 new cases in the United States each year (Identifying uterine cancer, 2006). Moreover, the radiation treatments that are commonly used to treat uterine cancer today have limited effectiveness and may cause scarring of the vaginal tissues that result in diminished quality of life outcomes (Cukier, Gingerilli, Makari-Judson & Mccullough, 2005)
A study by David, Chen, Assanah, Canoll and Manley (2010) notes that there are three heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein (hnRNP) proteins: (a) polypyrimidine tract binding protein (PTB, also known as hnRNPI); (b) hnRNPA1 and (c) hnRNPA2; all three of these hnRNP proteins repressively bind to sequences that are adjacent to exon 9 causing exon 10 inclusion. In their study, these researchers also demonstrate that the oncogenic transcription factor c-Myc upregulates the transcription of hnRNPA1, hnRNPA2 as well as PTB thereby assuring an elevated ratio for PKM2/PKM1 (David et al
580). Therefore, the ribonucleoprotein complex provides the framework in which the pre-mRNA is processed into mature messenger RNA (Ford et al
Further, women in particular at are risk for a number of diseases that may be affected by environment conditions, including breast cancer (the most common type) (Brody & Rudel, 2003), as well as uterine cancer (the fourth most common with about 40,000 new cases in the United States each year) (Identifying uterine cancer, 2006). Biomarkers may therefore help improve the assessment of various environmental exposures on the incidence of cancer in general and in women in particular (Heck, Andrew, Onega, Rigas, Jackson, Karagas & Duell, 2009)
Further, women in particular at are risk for a number of diseases that may be affected by environment conditions, including breast cancer (the most common type) (Brody & Rudel, 2003), as well as uterine cancer (the fourth most common with about 40,000 new cases in the United States each year) (Identifying uterine cancer, 2006). Biomarkers may therefore help improve the assessment of various environmental exposures on the incidence of cancer in general and in women in particular (Heck, Andrew, Onega, Rigas, Jackson, Karagas & Duell, 2009)
expression could serve as a biomarker for early detection of uterine cancer. The early detection of uterine cancer is vitally important to successful treatment, but this disease has received far less attention than other types of cancer in recent years (Jasen, 2009)
2 kb. The ORF is known to encode a 291 residues putative protein that is highly homologous with hRALY and hnRNPC; consequently, like hRALY, this protein was named hRALYL (Ji et al
In this study, Martinez-Contreras and her associates report the results of recent research that has provided additional evidence concerning the function of these proteins in precursor-messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) splicing (2007). The splicing repression can function in two discrete ways in heterogeneous nuclear RNP proteins; the first way is by antagonizing the recognition of splice sites directly and the second way is through interference with the binding of proteins that are bound to enhancers (Martinez-Contreras et al
In this study, Martinez-Contreras and her associates report the results of recent research that has provided additional evidence concerning the function of these proteins in precursor-messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) splicing (2007). The splicing repression can function in two discrete ways in heterogeneous nuclear RNP proteins; the first way is by antagonizing the recognition of splice sites directly and the second way is through interference with the binding of proteins that are bound to enhancers (Martinez-Contreras et al
7307). The first class of the cytoplasm A1 has the pre-mRNA and mRNA, and is the same as hnRNP complexes that have been described in the research in the past; however, the other class of the cytoplasm A1 functions as freely diffusible nuclear mRNPs (nmRNPs) during the late nuclear maturation stages and the potential exists that it is linked with nuclear mRNA export (Mili et al
(2007) also used in vitro models in order to address mechanisms governing hnRNP A2/B1 expression changes. These researchers found that hnRNP A2/B1 protein was overexpressed in E9, the spontaneous tranformant of immortalized but non-neoplastic E10 cells; however, they also determined that expression was not solely a function of enhanced proliferative rate in neoplastic cells (Peebles et al
According to these researchers, "In the cytoplasm, hnRNPs can regulate mRNA localization, translation and turnover. hnRNP A2 (36 kDa) and B1 (38 kDa) are isoforms derived from the same gene and differ by only 12 amino acids, due to the presence of exon 2 in the B1 transcript" (Prahl et al
These researchers found that p542 was discernible in three B. lymphocyte lines using Northern blots (Rhodes et al
These researchers add that, "hnRNP A2/B1 protein is a major component of the hnRNP core complex in mammalian cell nuclei. Although the function of hnRNP A2/B1 has not yet been fully elucidated, recent studies have revealed that hnRNP A2/B1 is involved in RNA splicing in nuclei as well as in mRNA transport from nucleus to cytoplasm" (Sueoka et al
These researchers add that, "hnRNP A2/B1 protein is a major component of the hnRNP core complex in mammalian cell nuclei. Although the function of hnRNP A2/B1 has not yet been fully elucidated, recent studies have revealed that hnRNP A2/B1 is involved in RNA splicing in nuclei as well as in mRNA transport from nucleus to cytoplasm" (Sueoka et al
These researchers add that, "hnRNP A2/B1 protein is a major component of the hnRNP core complex in mammalian cell nuclei. Although the function of hnRNP A2/B1 has not yet been fully elucidated, recent studies have revealed that hnRNP A2/B1 is involved in RNA splicing in nuclei as well as in mRNA transport from nucleus to cytoplasm" (Sueoka et al
These researchers are quick to point out, though, that, "hnRNPs can hinder communication between factors bound to different splice-sites, thereby having a positive role in RNA splicing. Most importantly, the concentration of splicing factors can alter the kinetic equilibrium in splicing, resulting in changes in splice-site selection" (Torosyan et al
I can also be found in your nucleic acids and energy carriers such as DNA or RNA, and lipids & enzymes, respectively. (Chandrasekaran, 2012) I also am quite effective at filter waste in your kidneys, help you use & store your energy, and reduce any muscle pain after an intense workout