¶ … scientific method refers to a way of investigation or the acquisition of knowledge through the testing of a theory or hypothesis, then working through measurements (observation and empirical notes) to come up with a result, which should prove or disprove the original theory. Thus, the basic method consists of a) formulating a question or hypothesis, b) designing an experiment or means of collecting data, c) observation or experimentation, d) analyzing the results and considering the proof or disproof of the hypotheses, and e) suggestions for future research (Cary, 2003)
The hypothesis is then tested either by conducting an experiment or making further observations. From this point, the results can be analyzed and scientific theory will either be constructed, supported or cast doubt upon (Schafersman, 1994)
The Islamic world also invented a number of new technologies that were later picked up in Europe, such as a variety of astronomical instruments including the quadrant, sextant and observation tube, the latter being the influence behind the telescope (Morelon 9-10). Aside from astronomical technologies, the Islamic world created street lamps, waste disposal facilities (Artz 148-50), ethanol (Hassan), and more than 200 surgical instruments
However the Late Middle Ages saw a difference to the revolutions as they took on a grand scale and increased in occurrence. Germany, for example, saw at least sixty phases of militant peasant revolts between the years 1336 and 1525 (Blickle)
" It has been suggested that the single greatest achievement of the Renaissance period was not a discovery or theory, but the process for discovery i.e. The scientific method (Brotton)
, as the astronomers began to study philosophy to try to gain an understanding of the early universe, combining their predictive planetary systems with an internal logic. As this approach was important not only to astronomy but also the philosophy of science, it has been called the first scientific revolution by a number of scholars (Brown)
So accurate in fact that historian Asger Aaboe stated all subsequent varieties of scientific astronomy, in the Hellenistic world, in India, in Islam, and in the West -- if not indeed all subsequent endeavor in the exact sciences -- depend upon Babylonian astromony in decisive and fundamental ways. It can also be said that the Mesopotamians devised the origins of philosophy, as their wisdom incorporated such thoughts as ethics, whilst their reasoning and rationality was developed to extend far beyond empirical observation (Buccellati 35-47)
This renewed interest made the subjects not only attractive but also accessible in both a cultural and political sense. This was succinctly portrayed in the story of Gerard of Cremona, who undertook a journey to Toledo, despite it being a Christian land again, because he arrived at a knowledge of each part of [philosophy] according to the study of the Latins…because of his love for the Almagest, which he did not find at all amongst the Latins, he made his way to Toledo, where seeing an abundance of books in Arabic on every subject…out of his desire to translate he thoroughly learnt the Arabic language… (Burnett 255)
Lillian was adept to provide such insights thanks to her background in both psychology and management. From Scientific Management to Project Management Project Management emerged as a discipline from various fields of application, ranging from construction to defense activity (Cleland & Garies), with forefathers Henry Gantt and Henri Fayol
However this was not known for sure until the pictographic Proto-Sinaitic alphabet was discovered. The Phoenician language, as the first widespread phonetic script, spread relatively rapidly around the world thanks to the Phoenician merchant sailors, introducing the language to various parts of Europe and North Africa (Daniels 94-95)
Turner wrote in 1997 that "Muslim artists and scientists, princes and laborers together made a unique culture that has directly and indirectly influenced societies on every continent." (270) The Muslim scientists developing early scientific methods alongside quantitative, empirical and experimental approaches to scientific inquiry has caused a number of scholars to believe they provided the platform for modern science (Durant 162-186)
For technological innovation, the achievements of the Mesopotamians were prolific. Inventions accredited to them range from metal and copper-working, which is scarcely surprising as they were amongst the very first groups of the Bronze age, to water storage and irrigation as well as textile weaving and glass making (Faiella 8-31)
D. (Falagas, Zarkadoulia and Samonis 1581-1586), though recent scholars have increased this to the fifteenth century (Saliba 245)
Libraries also served as a place to discuss science, theories, discoveries and ideas, which clearly made science much more accessible to the public in general. Finally, the library catalogue of organizing books into categories and genres, which we now enjoy as a feature of every library, was first introduced in medieval Islamic libraries (Francoise 988-991)
His great mind bore a remarkable influence on the Romans by systemizing astronomy, using existing knowledge discovered by those before him to create a firm empirical foundation for astronomy, thus permitting him to demonstrate a working relationship between astronomical observations and astronomical theory. Not only did his astronomical treatise the Almagest define both method and subject of future research into astronomy, but his Ptolemaic system was the dominant model for understanding the movements of the heavens (Goldstein)
Inevitably, the natural science ideas written in the texts began to spread, and such scholastics as Robert Grosseteste, Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon had started to expand on them. The Renaissance saw scientific work of great importance being undertaken within the commentary framework of Aristotle's writings (Grant 127-31)
The Islamic world also invented a number of new technologies that were later picked up in Europe, such as a variety of astronomical instruments including the quadrant, sextant and observation tube, the latter being the influence behind the telescope (Morelon 9-10). Aside from astronomical technologies, the Islamic world created street lamps, waste disposal facilities (Artz 148-50), ethanol (Hassan), and more than 200 surgical instruments
C., which is a date far earlier than Pythagoras himself was even born (Hoffman 18)
In the medical field, they introduced concepts and procedures that remain the main part of modern-day treatment, such as prescriptions, diagnosis, physical examinations and prognosis. The Diagnostic Handbook, the single most extensive medical text from the Mesopotamians, explained methods of therapy and etiology as well as various symptoms of illness and subsequent diagnosis and prognosis (Horstmanshoff, Stol and Tilburg 97-98)
Indeed, translators during this time actively sought out new philosophical, scientific and religious texts, with the latter highlighting an interest in translations of the Greek Church Fathers for the Europeans. The interest was so great that the Qur'an and other Islamic texts were sought for translation (d'Alverny 429-30), as well as some assorted Arabic literature (Irwin 93)