Indeed, throughout the l990's, despite declines in crime, one state after another pumped tens of millions of dollars into building supermax prisons and supermax facilities within existing prisons-sections that are usually called secure housing units (SHU's). Defenders of supermaxes argue that their restrictions provide a way to establish control in what is inherently an extremely dangerous environment (Abramsky, 2002)
Rather, any overall decrease in prison violence results completely from incapacitating the most violent and serious offenders. The most common goals of supermax prisons are summarized in the following table: Table 1 Goals and intended impacts associated with supermax prison goals Increase prison safety • Fewer murders of staff and prisoners • Fewer assaults on staff and prisoners • Fewer riots • Less concern and fear among inmates and staff about threats to personal safety Increase system wide prison order and control of prisoners • Greater compliance with rules by prisoners • Greater and more consistent fulfillment of daily routines and obligations by prisoners • Fewer disruptions and outbursts • Fewer lockdowns in general population prisons • Fewer use of force incidents by staff • Fewer warning shots fired by staff Improve supermax prisoners' behavior • More successful reintegration of supermax inmates into other prisons and society • Greater rule compliance following release from supermax prison • Less violence following release from supermax prison • Fewer returns to supermax prisons Reduce the influence of gangs • Less gang involvement • Less intimidation by gang members of fellow prisoners • Less drug trafficking Punish violent and disruptive prisoners • Increase level of punishment for violent and disruptive inmates • Increase perceived level of punishment among violent and disruptive inmates Increase public safety • Fewer escape attempts • Fewer successful escapes • Lower recidivism rates among supermax and general population prisoners • Less crime • Less fear of crime among residents Improve operational efficiencies • Reduce delays for prisoners awaiting placement into some type of segregation • Reduce costs by operating fewer segregation cells and blocks in different facilities • Reduce staff time devoted to transporting prisoners from facility to facility Source: (Mears & Watson, 2006) Impacts associated with Supermax Prisons There are many potential impacts of prisons that are intended or unintended and that can be positive or negative
The addition of isolation, however, suggests that the pains of imprisonment in supermax facilities are more severe than those in maximum-security prisons. Consequently, any negative emotional or psychological reactions to imprisonment should be greater in supermax facilities than in lower security facilities" (Pizarro & Stenius, 2004)
Others are simply free-standing prisons that were retrofitted. "According to a study by the Urban Institute, the per-cell cost of a Supermax is about $75,000 annually, compared to $25,000 for each cell in an ordinary state prison" (Ross, 2006)
On the other side, the government argues that the prisoners are chattel and prison administrators should have complete power to place any inmate wherever they want him, regardless of his actions and regardless of the conditions in the prison. Administrators persist that the criterion for placing and keeping an inmate in a supermax remain totally subjective and are based solely on their professional judgment as to the inmate's probable future performance (Rudolph, 2008)
-- considered to be the most dangerous and disruptive can be held in a regime of prolonged solitary confinement in small high-security units, with varying levels of restrictions on visits, telephone calls, access to programming and other privileges. In Scandinavia, pre-trial detainees are routinely held in solitary confinement for up to three months and at times indefinitely, with restricted access to visits, telephone privileges, correspondence and newspapers" (Shalev, 2011)
In 1999, by various counts and various definitions, between thirty and thirty-four states had supermax prisons or units, with more building apace (Supermax Housing: A Survey of Current Practice, 1997). In 2004, state-run supermaxes in 44 states held about 25,000 people (Tapley, 2010)
It has been demonstrated that minorities make up a disproportionate number of prison inmates. (Alexander, 2011) And most prison gangs are based on race, or protection from other races, which often leads to conflict between gangs and thus conflicts between races
31+) Gangs are usually divided by race, bringing racial issues into the fray, but also are responsible for illegal drug trafficking and the violence which stems from that trade. (Arthur, 2009, p
In order to deal with these problems there must be a shift of resources in society away from incarceration, and toward prevention and treatment. (Currie, 1998) It is also important that young people have a decent future to look forward to, and not be trapped in a dead-end life of poverty and misery
In other words, poor people and minorities are more likely to get sent to prison than the wealthy or whites for the same crime. (Wacquant, 2010, p. 73+) (Hashimoto, 2011, p
S. prisons are addicted to drugs or alcohol. (Lyons, 2010, p
Gangs, or Security Threat Groups (STG's) are a major problem in prisons today, with some prisons reporting 35-40% of the total population gang members. (Newhouse, 2009, p
In other words, poor people and minorities are more likely to get sent to prison than the wealthy or whites for the same crime. (Wacquant, 2010, p
Prior to this time prisons were "used largely for persons awaiting trial and other punishments and for debtors…." (Johnston) But with the advent of these new systems, a whole new era emerged in prison design, purpose, and administration
Also, the Commission recommended: a) alternatives to incarceration for women; b) "matching discharged inmates with appropriate social services" so they may more easily "reintegrate into society"; c) improved information systems to allow prisoners to be more informed of policies and the world outside; and d) the establishment of "gender-informed' case management programs" (Dodge, 303). Older Female Prisoners -- Functional Impairment and Adverse Experiences The number of older inmates in prisons around the country is "…increasing exponentially," according to a peer-reviewed article in the Journal of the American Geriatric Society (Williams, et al
In the October 2005 issue of the Stanford Law Review, Nora V. Demleitner points out that "Congress and the Sentencing Commission have neglected nonprison sentences and failed to consider collateral sanctions in the punishment calculus" (Demleitner 2005)
Although drug policies removed thousands of drug dealers from America's streets, they also created a huge and rapidly growing industry that must be funded by American taxpayers. The private sector is very involved in prison management, and prison privatization is one of the nation's top industries (Dickenson 1996)
residents. Although the United States comprises less than 5% of the world's population, its incarceration rate leads the world, holding 25% of the world's prisoners (Marciniak 2002)
S. wars on crime and drugs for the six-fold increase in the prison population, which has resulted in the construction of the world's largest prison system in less than three decades (McCormick 2000)