The generalizations being assigned here to Elinor and Marianne are therefore not necessarily reflections of the actual reality of male and female qualities, but are manifestations of the stereotypes traditionally associated with each gender. Michael Kimmel, author of the Gendered Society, defines gender as "the meanings that are attached to those differences within a culture" that are attributed to differences in sex (Kimmel 3)
60). In reality, it was a "system of representation by which signs and their meanings" were arranged in order to glorify masculinity (Barker 2008, p
Men's Fashion In his book Culture and Everyday Life, Andy Bennett provides a definition of fashion that highlights the fact that fashion has a particular utilitarian function wholly apart from that of clothing, and though a simple observation, this fact forces one to reconsider how men's fashion has been regarded for at least the last eighty years. In his book, Bennett writes that "fashion provides one of the most ready means through which individuals can make expressive visual statements about their identities," a claim most people would readily agree with (Bennett 2000, p
In doing so, the Great Masculine Renunciation followed the same tack as nearly every other form of discrimination and bias, which depends upon one group orienting itself as the neutral against which all other groups must be considered different, and thus secondary. This serves to integrate and internalize the power inequality, such that it becomes an "internalized, 'embodied' social structure" (Bourdieu 1984, p
Despite the glaring error in his overall argument, Flugel nevertheless contributed to the evolution of men's fashion by making explicit what had previously been implicit. His claim that men had renounced fashion, although incorrect, helped to highlight the fact that men's fashion was especially limited, so that by the time he published his book, he had helped start the Men's Dress Reform Party, which was dedicated to "the aesthetic liberation of men" (Bourke 1996, p
Thus, when attempting to analyze men's fashion, one must be careful to recognize that for much of the last two centuries, men's fashion has been a kind of unspoken trade, wherein the expressive potential of clothing is recognized but carefully discussed so as not to be confused with the kind of "fashion" engaged in by women, which was considered frivolous. This "rigorous attention to structures of self denial and social distinction" can be seen in the discourse surrounding men's fashion at the time, which "incorporate[d] a gendered appreciation of the qualities of tailoring; echoing those areas of leisured cultural activity such as collecting, prioritized for men in the guise of connoisseurship while being demoted for women to the realm of the domestic chore or the trivial hobby" (Breward 1999, p
However, recognizing the changing roles of men and women is not where Flugel's claim ends. Instead, he suggests that this division of activity into gendered spheres meant that men essentially abstained from fashion over the course of the nineteenth century, and this notion has permeated the academic response to men's fashion, such that "modern men's fashions have been largely neglected; such attention as they have received is generally limited to questions of utility, omitting the nuances of male dress" (Entwistle 2000, p
One of the most important academic texts regarding fashion came in 1930, when John Carl Flugel wrote The Psychology of Clothes. In a portion of the book, he discusses a historical shift which he dubs "the Great Masculine Renunciation," in which "man abandoned his claim to be considered beautiful," such that "he henceforth aimed at being only useful," and thus "so far as clothes remained of importance to him, his utmost endeavors could only lie in the direction of being 'correctly' attired, not of being elegantly or elaborately attired" (Flugel 1930, p
Among other themes many have found isolation, emasculation, consumer culture, violence and even lack of father figure. In this paper we're going to look through the kaleidoscope of these themes to throw light on the issues of communication and gender (Giroux, 2001)
Jack finds a peculiar place where he can express his feelings and he has to pretend as if he were a testicular cancer victim like everyone else there. So men find a place for having communication only among themselves; and no interaction with the opposite sex is deemed effective (Lizardo, 2007)
When the viewers watch the film, the portrayal of the tragic-comic character Robert Bob Paulson can easily makes them curious. This character is said to be endowed with "tits of a bitch" and he is deprived of testicles, the symbols of maleness (Terry, 2002)
Men and women who deviated from the Meiji gender-expectations were seen as in some sense abnormal and divergent to society. Under this category fell prostitutes, whom the state stigmatized as carriers of venereal disease, waitresses and factory workers who were compelled to adopt these unconventional ways of life in order to earn money (Hastings, 2007)
Children do not develop intimate relationships with their father and so do not act normally when he is home, instead acting necessarily respectful. Fathers begin to invoke a sense of awe and respect in their children, as well as their wives (Roberson 2003)
As a result, they have limited contact with their wives and children. This allows for the traditional Japanese husband and father to hold a significant amount of control over his family, mainly through expectation and respect (Seto, Bekerm & Akutsu 2006)
As an island nation, Japan developed while separated from other cultures. Ideals and social functions became ingrained over hundreds of years of habit and practice (Sugihara & Katsurada 2002)
As an island nation, Japan developed while separated from other cultures. Ideals and social functions became ingrained over hundreds of years of habit and practice (Sugihara & Katsurada 2002)
The feminist movement of the 1970s affected Japan's women in a significant way. Women no longer portray the traditional "ideal" of a quiet, subservient wife and mother, decorated and pigeon-toed to demonstrate chastity (Suzuki 2007)
"Mulvey argues that various features of cinema viewing conditions facilitate for the viewer both the voyeuristic process of objectification of female characters and also the narcissistic process of identification with an 'ideal ego' seen on the screen. She declares that in patriarchal society 'pleasure in looking has been split between active/male and passive/female'" (Chandler, "Lara Mulvey," 2000)
"Mulvey argues that various features of cinema viewing conditions facilitate for the viewer both the voyeuristic process of objectification of female characters and also the narcissistic process of identification with an 'ideal ego' seen on the screen. She declares that in patriarchal society 'pleasure in looking has been split between active/male and passive/female'" (Chandler, "Lara Mulvey," 2000)
"Mulvey argues that various features of cinema viewing conditions facilitate for the viewer both the voyeuristic process of objectification of female characters and also the narcissistic process of identification with an 'ideal ego' seen on the screen. She declares that in patriarchal society 'pleasure in looking has been split between active/male and passive/female'" (Chandler, "Lara Mulvey," 2000)