Supreme Court's rendering of its decision in Brown v. Board of Education (Brown v. Board of Education, 1954) that overturned the separate but equal standard that had been the law in the United States
From the beginning of United States history, the fate of blacks, in general, and their respective civil rights have been a disputed issue. In nearly every election throughout the history of the republic, race has been a central issue in some form but the change that has occurred in the country relative to the rights of blacks has occurred as a result of the attitudes of national elite, comprised of educated whites, instead of a response to the pressures of the majority (Dye, 2011)
In Brown, the Supreme Court recognized that the separate but equal standard was unreasonable and that blacks must be afforded equal access to the nation's schools in order to be afforded true equal treatment. Beyond Brown the civil rights movement stalled until the early 60s, when President Johnson's Great Society, pushed through a number of significant civil rights bill including the 1964 Civil Rights Bill that brought major changes to the civil rights movement in the United States (Hall, 2005)
Book Review: Backlash 9/11: Middle Eastern and Muslim Americans Respond by Anny Bakalian and Mehdi Bozorgmehr is an ambitious book that evaluates the handling of Muslim and Middle Eastern Americans after the September 11 attacks and the successive organizational responses. While this book consists of 8 chapters and an appendix, it starts with a comprehensive conceptual outline of backlash (Bakalian & Bozorgmehr, 2009, p
The first chapter of the book defines and creates a form of backlash and creates the conditions for mobilization. The following middle chapters of the book examine the effect of hate crimes and governmental initiatives whereas the final chapter focuses on mobilization (Hagopian, 2009, p
A. Patriot Act as one of the governmental actions established following the attacks (Jalalzai, 2009, p
The actual extent of the backlash may not be noticeable because these people have used legal, institutional, and cultural American strategies to fight against the backlash and prove their determination to be part of this society. Nonetheless, there has been an increase in cases of anti-Muslim hare crimes, violent assault, and arson throughout the country since the 9/11 attacks (Poros, 2009, p
The 1960s was representative for the civil rights movement which culminated with the 1965 Voting Rights Act. It represented the result of decades of civil struggle for the right to vote by women and African-Americans in the American society (Bolick, 1995)
The Korean war was to some extent an expected consequence of the post world war situation. It was the first sign of the confrontation between East and West outside Europe (Jenkins, 1997)
In fact this attempt was part of the wider situation and balance of power present during the Cold War. The main goal of the Korean communists was to practically unite Korea under a communist rule (Kissinger, 1995)
The need for the enactment of the 14th Amendment came to light in the case of Barron v. Mayor & City Council of Baltimore in 1833 (Barron v. Mayor of Baltimore, 1833)
Powell was followed by the Court's decision in Brown v. Mississippi which threw out the coerced confession of a defendant in a state criminal case and was a harbinger of what would occur in the early 1960's by the Supreme Court led by Chief Justice Earl Warren (Brown v. Mississippi, 1936)
California (Robinson v. Calfornia, 1962), the Eighth Amendment (cruel and unusual punishment), in Gideon v Wainwright (Gideon v. Wainwright, 1963), the Sixth Amendment (assistance of counsel), in Malloy v
The Supreme Court refused to broadly apply the 14th Amendment. This application continued as the Supreme Court visited the issue as to the application of the Due Process Clause in the case of Hurtado v California (Hurtado v California, 1884)
Wainwright, 1963), the Sixth Amendment (assistance of counsel), in Malloy v. Hogan (Malloy v. Hogan, 1964) the Fifth Amendment (self-incrimination), and in Pointer v
The breakthrough case for this approach came in the case of Mapp v. Ohio (Mapp v. Ohio, 1961)
Hogan, 1964) the Fifth Amendment (self-incrimination), and in Pointer v. Texas (Pointer v. Texas, 1965) the Sixth Amendment right to confront and cross-examine witnesses was applied to all state actions
The explosion in the applying of the 14th Amendment to the states began with the Supreme Court's decision in Powell v. Alabama (Powell v. Alabama, 1932)
By the time that the Warren Court had completed its term, the only rights contained in the Bill of Rights that had not been extended to the states by the Supreme Court were the provisions of the Second and Third Amendments and limited provisions of the Fifth, Seventh and Eighth Amendments. Of historical interest is the fact that when James Madison originally proposed the Bill of Rights he suggested that they be applied to the states as well but Congress rejected Madison's suggestion (Rakove, 1985)
In Robinson v. California (Robinson v. Calfornia, 1962), the Eighth Amendment (cruel and unusual punishment), in Gideon v Wainwright (Gideon v