The relationship between risk and protective factors and problem behaviors is complicated in that the salience of a risk factor may change depending on the cultural and physical context, the presence of other risk and protective factors and the developmental status of the group or individual." (Ashery, Robertson and Kumpfer, 1998, p
2) Levin, Culkin and Perrotto (2001) state that family risk factors for drug abuse and dependence includes the following: (1) Parental drug abuse, especially paternal alcoholism; (2) Sibling drug abuse, especially by older siblings; (3) Family mental health problems, especially maternal depression; (4) Family antisocial behavior; (5) Family conflict and discord; (6) Poor supervision of child behavior; (7) Alienation and isolation of the family from social support networks. (Levin, Culkin, and Perrotto, 2001, p
Assessment requirements include: (1) a structured clinical interview used for determining "DSM-IV diagnoses of substance dependence, abuse or use; (2) evaluation that is comprehensive in addressing the areas of history of substance use, medical health, developmental issues, school and vocational history, strengths or resiliency factors, conduct disorder behaviors, criminal involvement, psychopathology, such as depression and hostility, familial relationships, history of physical, sexual, or emotional abuse, peer relationships, current living conditions, sexual activity, and leisure activities." (Rutherford, 1998, p
Drug Addiction The work of Volkow (nd) reports that thirty years of research by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) has demonstrated that "addiction is a complex brain disease characterized by compulsive, at times uncontrollable, drug craving, seeking and use that persist despite potentially devastating consequences." (Volkow, nd, p
Models of treatment may be broken down into constituent parts, according to the situation and the needs of the client. Research on the hearing impaired, for example, shows that differential needs of the client base will lead to the therapist designing a multifaceted treatment program (Guthmann, n
Family intervention tackles a variety of problems including eating disorders, mental health intervention, behavioral intervention, gambling intervention, as well as other types of addiction. The design of the services is adult based, and adolescents (Marinelli, 2009)
The enabling factors are an operational definition. They refer to the behaviors and reactions of loved ones in the face of the over-indulgence (Durand & Hieneman, 2008)
Most of the intervention techniques offered by counseling institutions maintain that the process is an individual, gradually escalating, and non-secretive process. It empowers the families by reaffirming and reinstating their intrinsic strength, hope, and resilience, which evaporates in the facade of the addiction (Green, 2003)
Diversity is not limited to cross-cultural issues, though. In fact, among the various groups identified by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism is the so-called "multidisabled" group, comprised of people with mental or physical disabilities as well as chemical dependency problems (Campbell et al
Today, the need for psychological interventions for chemical dependency is based on the multifaceted manner in which the problems associated with the condition are manifested. For instance, people with chemical dependencies tend to experience a wide range of adverse outcomes, including problems with their personal and social relationships, employment, financial difficulties, involvement with the criminal justice system, as well as a host of health-related conditions (Esterly & Neely, 1999)
(p. 104) The so-called "modern period" of psychology began in the 16th and 17th centuries based on the work of principal figures such as Descartes, Leibniz, and Locke) (Henley & Thorne, 2005)
104). By the fin de siecle and heavily influenced by Freud, Jung and other human developmental theorists, psychologists increasingly turned their attention to the deep-seated motivations that drove behavior (McGillicuddy-De Lisi & De Lisi, 2002)
According to Mckay and Hiller-Sturmhofel (2011), the current approach to treating alcohol dependency typically involves an initial intensive stage that is addressed on an inpatient basis; once individuals are stabilized and their withdrawal symptoms are resolved, they are provided with a less intensive stage that is usually provided on an outpatient setting basis, frequently at a different facility from the inpatient setting. These authors advise that, "In most cases, the approach used by these programs is the 'Minnesota Model,' a 28-day inpatient/residential rehabilitation program that was developed at the Hazelden Foundation and other residential programs" (Mckay & Sturmhofel, 2011, p
121). An analysis of family treatment studies conducted during the period 1950 to 1975, though, showed that there was a dearth of studies that demonstrated the efficacy of the family treatment approach (O'Farrell & Fals-Stewart, 2003)
According to Pacione and Jaskula, several chemical dependency-specific medications are also available that are either capable of blocking the euphoric effects of abused substances or are capable of generating undesirable or unpleasant side effects if substances are used or abused. Two common medications are disulfiram (Antabuse) and naltrexone hydrochloride (Trexan) that continue to be the focus of clinical studies (Pacione & Jaskula, 1999)
69). By contrast, critics of this growing trend maintain that treatment manuals "ignore a rich heritage of psychological theory, reduce treatment to simple recipes dictated largely by the pressures of the insurance marketplace, and subtly restrict responsive and creative adaptation of treatment to the diverse needs of a heterogeneous client population" (Shumate, 2002, p