In other words, separate but equal was legal and enforcing it was constitutional. (Lowi, Ginsberg & Shepsle 147-148) the text then goes on to discuss the rend of increased racial discrimination following WWII, making many of the same or similar points that are made by Katrznelson in his text
In its 1978 ruling, the Supreme Court outlawed inflexible quota systems in affirmative action programs. (Brunner) b
Sixty-one % voted for the "need to reform"; 22% opined that affirmative action "needs to be eliminated" and only 8% favored the "status quo." (Galston) 5
Connerly believes that preferences in jobs and admissions unnecessarily marginalize blacks, Latinos, and females who lose their sense of accomplishment by the "stigma" of having been given something instead of competing for it fairly in a level-playing field. (Montgomery, "Poison Divides Us
John O'Sullivan, a National Review Editor opines: Diversity preference" is a cheap substitute for policies that could genuinely help the minorities -- including a cutback in immigration and low-wage competition; a strong law and order policy, and an appropriate education policy that assists the removal of children from dead end schools. (O'Sullivan, "Preferences
" Meanwhile an appellate ruling is pending in two conflicting Michigan decisions, one striking down race preferences in law school admissions, the other upholding them in undergraduate admissions (Schrag, 25). Schools are not only having to actually use a racial bias when admitting students, they are having to accept students who otherwise would not be able to enter college not because of their race or gender, but because of their school performance - which is what has always formed the primary differentiating point between candidates for seats in schools (Dowling, 6)
(For two decades or more, until well into the 1990s, places like UC Berkeley, the University of Texas, and the University of Michigan added extra points to the scores of black and Latino applicants.) So as federal courts -- in Texas, Michigan, and Georgia -- join voters in California and Washington in ending the use of race-based criteria in university admissions (and in employment and contracting), other sectors of our society in education and business should be looking closely at this as well (Schrag, 24)
The word "stigma" is used here to represent the negativity, criticism and humiliation that an individual might face in a social setting primarily because of their customs, gender, race or culture. This is mainly a result of the fact that the demands and needs of the women and minorities are not accepted within the standardized idea of respect (Boston and Nair-Reichert, 2003)
culture, however, the best use of these theories is an efficient and balanced combination. This simply means that all of these theories should be used together to tackle the problems that they each handle best so that the if one theory lacks the dynamics to handle a particular aspect, then one of the two other theories can make up for that deficiency in approach (Bulman-Pozen, 2006)
In comparison to the principle definition of equal employment opportunity (EEO) where inactive and indirect efforts to remove biases are give importance, AA gives higher significance to the direct, decisive and insistent participation to make sure that the discrimination towards minorities or women in the workplace or in academic structures, whether its formalized or not, are removed so that equality exists in all spheres. One thing that is important to note here is the phenomenon of affirmative action does not actually equalizes the allocations for minorities or women, instead its suggests how equality can be brought into a structure if it hasn't been recognized legally (Chambers et al
This simply means that the practitioners focused on the importance of bringing equity as an actor into their policies because they realized that if they didn't have policies that supported equity then they were inadvertently supporting discrimination and inequality towards minorities and/or women. Hence, a policy designed around removing differences and imbalances of the society was needed a flexible and trough approach needed to be applied that could be customized based on the demands and needs across different segments of the society (Iyigun and Levin, 2003)
The three main anti-discrimination law theories that will be discussed in this paper in relation to affirmative action are: The process theory; The stigma theory, and; The group disadvantage theory. The main aim of the process theory is to design or correct fundamental structures of an organization, with the help of the anti-discrimination law, in order to make them more acceptable and equal within the dynamic society it serves (Kamalu and Kamalu, 2004)
So, in essence those groups of people who disagree on certain ideas or approaches towards justice must try to adopt an unbiased approach to understanding the reason behind the existence of the differences and resolve them through negotiation. This particular approach will allow the phenomenon of AA to be ethically acceptable in the long run (Katznelson, 2006)
Hence, many studies have also focused on the approach that AA would have towards reverse discrimination and the conclusion is the same: it is unacceptable and needs to be resolved. Many studies explain that reverse discrimination is mainly caused by those individuals who try extra hard to not be discriminatory and usually under pressure make decisions that don't normally support their better judgment and turn out to be unfair towards the majority or the more deserving male candidates (Milem and Hakuta, 2000)
If one talks about morale as well, discrimination can tend to be very harmful especially if it's something that an individual deals with everyday at his workplace. Some of the most common morale concerns that are raised directly or indirectly because of discrimination include anxiety and frustration at the workplace, frustration at the government or administration and policy makers as well as constant reservation towards angry responses and resignation of humiliation as part of one's personality (Sander, 2004)
This is exhibited by prestigious institutions of higher learning. Admission policies on affirmative action have been effective in aligning the balance of opportunity and power whilst ensuring that formerly excluded societal groups are currently included in the system (Bennett-Alexander & Hartman, 2009)
Affirmative Action In order to evaluate whether Fairview County Public Library's affirmative action plan is valid, identifying the basis for its implementation is necessary. Affirmative mainly serves to redress the injustices caused by a society's historical discrimination against people of color, women and other minority groups by leveling the uneven playing ground (Maltz, 2005)
Title VII of this act prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex as well as race in hiring, promoting, and firing employees. According to Title VII, it is unlawful for employers to fail to hire, to fire, or to discriminate against any individual in regards to their compensation or other terms of employment based upon their race, religion, sex, or national origin (Carrington, McCue, & Brooks, 2000)
Failure to comply with the legislation can result in enforced sanctions by the federal court. These may take the form of imposed diversity hiring goals, monetary fines, discontinuation of contracts, and being banned from applying for future contracts (Kelly & Dobin, 1998)
It can be defined as a proactive approach to removing barriers that prevent any person from having an equal opportunity based on discriminatory practices (Soni, 1999). This approach is aimed at overcoming lingering barriers and disadvantages that exist due to past discrimination (Lee, 1999)